We thank Melissa Klocke for assistance preparing Figure 1 and Anna Ratliff for demonstrating the protocol. This work was supported by the Research Corporation for Science Advancement.

1. Microtubule Gliding Assay Stock Solutions
 Prepare ahead of gliding assay.
 <ol>
 <li>Polymerize 0.5 mg microtubules sparsely labeled with bright organic fluorophore 22. The target label concentration is 1 fluorophore per micrometer of microtubule, or a labeling density of approximately 1 fluorophore per 1,500 tubulin dimers. Store at room temperature, light protected with aluminum, foil for up to two weeks.</li>
 <li>Purify biotin-kinesin21 at approximately 1 &mu;M. Store at -80 &deg;C in 5 &mu;l aliquots for use in individual experiments.</li>
 <li>Prepare the assay buffer (AB) of 50 mM imidiazole, 50 mM potassium chloride (KCl), 4 mM magnesium chloride (MgCl2), 2 mM ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), pH 6.7. Sterile filter and store at 4 &deg;C.</li>
 <li>Dissolve biotinylated bovine serum albumin (biotin-BSA) to 2 mg/ml in AB. Filter with 0.2 &mu;m syringe filter. Store at -80 &deg;C in 100 &mu;l aliquots for long periods, at 4 &deg;C for up to one month. </li>
 <li>Dissolve streptavidin (SA) to 10 mg/ml in AB. Filter with 0.2 &mu;m syringe filter. Store at -80 &deg;C in 20 &mu;l aliquots for long periods, at 4 &deg;C for up to two weeks.</li>
 <li>Dissolve &alpha;-casein to 5 mg/ml in AB. Filter with 0.2 &mu;m syringe filter. Store at -80 &deg;C in 100 &mu;l aliquots for long periods, at 4 &deg;C for up to two weeks.</li>
 <li>Dissolve dithiothreitol (DTT) in deionized water at 200 mM. Store at -20 &deg;C in 100 &mu;l aliquots, use within 8 hr of thawing. Can be refrozen.</li>
 <li>Dissolve paclitaxel (PT) in HPLC-grade dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at 4 mM. Store in 10 &mu;l aliquots at -80 &deg;C long term, -20 &deg;C short-term. Use within 8 hours of thawing. Can be refrozen.</li>
 <li>Dissolve glucose in deionized water at 120 mg/ml. Store in 100 &mu;l aliquots at -20 &deg;C. Can be refrozen.</li>
 <li>Dissolve adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in deionized water at 150 mM, pH 7.0. Store in 5 &mu;l aliquots at -80 &deg;C, use within 8 hr of thawing.</li>
 <li>Prepare 100x oxygen scavenging stock25 by dissolving 10,000 units glucose oxidase and 156,000 units catalase into 600 &mu;l total assay buffer. Centrifuge briefly in a microcentrifuge to pellet solids; filter supernatant with 0.2 &mu;m syringe filter. Store at -80 &deg;C in 10 &mu;l aliquots for long periods, at 4 &deg;C for up to one week.</li>
 </ol>
 2. Microtubule Gliding Assay, Same Day Solution Preparation
 Prepare the solutions in 2.1-2.6 on the day of the experiment. With practice, solutions 2.2-2.6 can be prepared during flow-cell washing. Unless otherwise noted, keep stock solutions on ice.
 <ol>
 <li>Prepare AB, 1 ml of assay buffer with 10 &mu;l of DTT stock (AB with 2 mM DTT). Keep at room temperature.</li>
 <li>Prepare bio-BSA buffer, 40 &mu;l of a 1:1 mixture of the biotin-BSA stock and AB. Keep at room temperature.</li>
 <li>Prepare BSA buffer, mixing 645 &mu;l of AB with 5.5 &mu;l BSA (1 mg/ml BSA in AB). Keep at room temperature.</li>
 <li>Prepare SA buffer, mixing 57 &mu;l of AB with 3 &mu;l streptavidin stock (0.5 mg/ml streptavidin in AB). Keep at room temperature.</li>
 <li>Prepare &alpha;-casein buffer, mixing 200 &mu;l of BSA buffer, 50 &mu;l casein stock, and 0.8 &mu;l of 15 &mu;M ATP (1 mg/ml &alpha;-casein, 0.8 mg/ml BSA, 50 nM ATP in AB). Keep at room temperature.</li>
 <li>Prepare fluorescence anti-bleach buffer, mixing 95 &mu;l &alpha;-casein buffer, 2.5 &mu;l glucose stock, 1 &mu;l 100x oxygen scavenging mix, 1 &mu;l paclitaxel stock, 1 &mu;l 2-mercaptoethanol (&beta;ME). Add &beta;ME under fume hood. Use fluorescence anti-bleach buffer within 1 hr of preparation. CAUTION: &beta;ME is highly toxic and smells awful. Be sure to only open under the fume hood. Store bottle in the absence of light; light degrades &beta;ME and its ability to reduce photobleaching.</li>
 </ol>
 3. Microtubule Gliding Assay
 <ol>
 <li>Construct about four flow lanes between a 24 x 60 mm coverslip and 22 x 22 mm coverslip using vacuum grease, extruded from a syringe through a pipette tip, as a spacer. Each flow lane should be approximately 10 &mu;l in volume (scale subsequent volumes accordingly).</li>
 <li>Wash 10 &mu;l of bio-BSA buffer into each lane. Incubate 5 min to allow BSA to coat the glass surfaces.</li>
 <li>Wash each lane three times with 15 &mu;l BSA buffer to remove free biotin-BSA, while continuing to block the slide surface. Use a Kimwipe or filter paper to remove buffer from opposite side of flow chamber, being sure not to allow air bubbles to go through the flow chamber.</li>
 <li>Wash 15 &mu;l SA-buffer into each lane. Wait 10 min, or up to 2 hr. The streptavidin will bind to the surface-bound biotin-BSA.</li>
 <li>Wash each lane three times with 15 &mu;l BSA buffer to remove free SA while continuing to block the slide surface. </li>
 <li>Wash each lane with 15 &mu;l &alpha;-casein buffer. &alpha;-casein helps further block non-specific binding of kinesin and microtubules to the glass.</li>
 <li>Dilute kinesin to 10 nM in &alpha;-casein buffer and wash each lane with 15 &mu;l of this kinesin - &alpha;-casein solution. Wait 15 min (or up to an hour) for the biotinylated kinesin to bind specifically to the surface-bound streptavidin. The kinesin motor domains will remain free to bind microtubules.</li>
 <li>Dilute paclitaxel to 40 &mu;M in room-temperature &alpha;-casein buffer, and wash each lane with 15 &mu;l of this solution to wash out free kinesin and to pre-load each flow chamber with a paclitaxel solution to prevent microtubules from depolymerizing. Cold also depolymerizes microtubules, so make sure these steps occur at room temperature with room temperature solutions.</li>
 <li>Dilute fluorescently labeled microtubules 1:100-1:1,000 in fluorescence anti-bleach buffer with 1 mM ATP. Wash 15 &mu;l into one lane and observe within 30 min.</li>
 </ol>
 4. Data Collection
 <ol>
 <li>Observe the microtubules gliding using fluorescence microscopy; a microscope capable of resolving single fluorophores such as a commercial or home-build TIRF setup is required26 (Figure 2). 
The microtubules should be propelled by the kinesin motors over the substrate at approximately 0.5 &mu;m/s, depending on temperature. If the field-of-view of the microscope is 50 &mu;m, individual microtubules should be visible for approximately 100 sec. Set illumination intensity so that single fluorophores do not photobleach more quickly than 100 sec. If using laser excitation, a power setting of approximately 3-5 mW is appropriate.
 </li>
 <li>Collect sequences of images for analysis. 600 images at 5 Hz (2 min total) works well. Use sequences long enough that microtubules traverse the entire field-of-view.</li>
 </ol>
 5. Data Analysis
 An IDL routine, <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/50117/50117IDL_Routines.zip" target="_blank">get_lp.pro</a>, is attached. This routine returns a persistence length value based on all microtubules gliding in a given image sequence. Either run this routine on each image sequence, modifying intensity parameters depending on your particular microscope setup, or do the following:
 <ol>
 <li>Track each fluorophore attached to a microtubule to create fluorophore trajectories.</li>
 <li>Combine all the trajectories of fluorophores on a given microtubule into an overall microtubule trajectory; repeat for each microtubule in the image sequence (Figure 3).</li>
 <li>Calculate the tangent angle to each point along the trajectory (Figure 4), and calculate &lt;cos&theta;s&gt; in Eq. 1 by averaging the cosine of the angle difference for every pair of points separated by a path-length s (Figure 5). Find the persistence length for a single microtubule or group of microtubules by fitting &lt;cos&theta;s&gt; to Eq. 1, weighting the individual data points in the fit by the number of independent values of cos&theta;s that are used to compute the average.</li>
 </ol>

<ol>
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L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microtubule+dynamics+depart+from+the+wormlike+chain+model.">Microtubule dynamics depart from the wormlike chain model.</a> Physical review letters. 100, 028102 (2008).</li><li>Van den Heuvel, M. G., de Graaff, M. P., Dekker, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microtubule+curvatures+under+perpendicular+electric+forces+reveal+a+low+persistence+length.">Microtubule curvatures under perpendicular electric forces reveal a low persistence length.</a> Proceedings of the national academy of sciences U.S.A. 105, 7941-7946 (2008).</li><li>Gittes, F., Mickey, B., Nettleton, J., Howard, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flexural+rigidity+of+microtubules+and+actin+filaments+measured+from+thermal+fluctuations+in+shape.">Flexural rigidity of microtubules and actin filaments measured from thermal fluctuations in shape.</a> Journal of cell biology. 120, 923-934 (1993).</li><li>Brangwynne, C. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bending+dynamics+of+fluctuating+biopolymers+probed+by+automated+high-resolution+filament+tracking.">Bending dynamics of fluctuating biopolymers probed by automated high-resolution filament tracking.</a> Biophysical journal. 93, 346-359 (2007).</li><li>Cassimeris, L., Gard, D., Tran, P. T., Erickson, H. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XMAP215+is+a+long+thin+molecule+that+does+not+increase+microtubule+stiffness.">XMAP215 is a long thin molecule that does not increase microtubule stiffness.</a> Journal of cell science. 114, 3025-3033 (2001).</li><li>Valdman, D., Atzberger, P. J., Yu, D., Kuei, S., Valentine, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectral+analysis+methods+for+the+robust+measurement+of+the+flexural+rigidity+of+biopolymers.">Spectral analysis methods for the robust measurement of the flexural rigidity of biopolymers.</a> Biophysical. 102, 1144-1153 (2012).</li><li>van Mameren, J., Vermeulen, K. C., Gittes, F., Schmidt, C. 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E., Leibler, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term="Gliding+assays"+for+motor+proteins:+A+theoretical+analysis.">"Gliding assays" for motor proteins: A theoretical analysis.</a> Physical review letters. 74, 330-333 (1995).</li><li>Mehrbod, M., Mofrad, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+significance+of+microtubule+flexural+behavior+in+cytoskeletal+mechanics.">On the significance of microtubule flexural behavior in cytoskeletal mechanics.</a> PLoS one. 6, e25627 (2011).</li><li>Szarama, K. B., Gavara, N., Petralia, R. S., Kelley, M. W., Chadwick, R. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Persistence length measurements are a good characterization of the mechanical properties of individual biopolymers. In this article, we have described a method of measuring the persistence length of microtubules. As noted in the introduction, this method is readily extended to examining microtubule mechanical properties in a variety of conditions simply by varying the reagents, temperature, or viscosity in the final step of the gliding assay, 3.9, or by polymerizing microtubules, step 1.1, under different condition...

The cytoskeleton, a network of biopolymers found in most eukaryotic cells, plays a role in cellular organization, intracellular transport, and cell mechanics. The mechanical characteristics of the biopolymers of the cytoskeleton (primarily actin and microtubules) play a significant role in determining the mechanical characteristics of the cell as a whole12. Since whole cell mechanics can characterize healthy and diseased cells13,14 and is involved in cellular motility15, the mechanical properties of the underlying cytoskeletal components have been an active area of study for the past two decades1.
The flexibility (or stiffness) of biopolymers is characterized by the persistence length, the length of polymer which bends by approximately one radian under thermal fluctuations at ambient temperature. A number of techniques have been developed to measure persistence length16, for example active techniques which involve bending the polymer using hydrodynamic flow, optical traps, or electric fields4,17,18 , and passive techniques which measure the fluctuations of free polymers in solution5,6 . The active measurements, however, require specialized setups to implement known forces on the micrometer scale, and the free-fluctuation measurements can be challenging due to diffusion out of the plane of focus of the microscope used.
In this article, we describe a complementary, passive, technique to measure the persistence length of microtubules, a cytoskeletal polymer. The technique involves gliding assays, which ensure that the polymer always remains in the focal plane19. Moreover, it involves tracking single fluorophores attached permanently to the polymer of interest, so that specific locations along the polymer are well characterized.
A cartoon of the method is shown in Figure 1. Kinesin moves specifically toward the + end of microtubules, so the microtubules in a gliding assay are propelled unidirectionally. The leading end of the microtubule, beyond the last kinesin attached, is free to fluctuate under the thermal forces of the surrounding solution. As the microtubule is propelled forward, the end fluctuates until binding to a new kinesin molecule further along the glass slide freezes in a given fluctuation. Because kinesin attaches microtubules very strongly, the microtubule is constrained to follow the path of the leading end. Therefore, the statistical fluctuations frozen into the microtubule trajectory are the same as the statistical fluctuations of the free end of microtubules11, and can therefore be used to calculate the persistence length according to20
<img alt="Equation 1" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50117/50117eq1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50117/50117eq1.jpg" /> 
where lp is the persistence length of the microtubule, &theta;s is the angle between tangents to the trajectory separated by a contour length s, and &lt;&gt; denotes an average over all pairs of positions separated by a contour length s.
The gliding assay itself uses kinesin biotinylated at the coiled-coil21 specifically bound to the glass slide via a streptavidin-biotin linkage. This attachment ensures that the motor domains are free to bind to and propel microtubules. In order to follow microtubule trajectories, microtubules are sparsely labeled with organic fluorophores22,23 - the labels must be sparse enough that single fluorophores are resolvable using single molecule fluorescence microscopy. Single fluorophores are tracked using image analysis routines written in IDL. The trajectories of each fluorophore bound to a given microtubule are combined into a composite microtubule trajectory automatically24. The tangent angles &theta; to each point along a trajectory are calculated; from these tangent angles the &lt;cos&theta;s&gt; value is calculated for each contour length s. Finally, these data are fit to Eq. 1 in order to extract a persistence length for a given microtubule, or for many microtubules in the same gliding assay.
The method is robust enough to work with microtubules prepared in a wide variety of conditions (with different stabilizing agents or other small molecules bound to the microtubule, with bound microtubule associated proteins (MAPs), or with a variety of viscous solutions). In our lab, the technique has been used to characterize the persistence length of microtubules as a function of length along the microtubules and microtubules with different stabilizing agents. The main restriction is that the microtubules must still support kinesin motility. Since kinesin is a robust motor enzyme, this is a fairly loose restriction. By replacing microtubules with actin and kinesin with a myosin family enzyme, the persistence length of actin can be measured using the same technique.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Reagents </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>imidazole</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>I2399 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>potassium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P9541 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>magnesium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>M8266 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EGTA</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>E3889 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>BSA</td>
 <td>Calbiochem</td>
 <td>126615</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>biotinylated BSA</td>
 <td>Thermo Scientific</td>
 <td>29130</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>&alpha;-casein</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>C6780 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>streptavidin</td>
 <td>Thermo Scientific</td>
 <td>21125</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>dithiothreitol</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>D0632 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>paclitaxel</td>
 <td>LC Laboratories</td>
 <td>P-9600</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>glucose oxidase</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G2133</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>catalase</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>C100</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>glucose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G8270</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ATP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A2383 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>2-mercaptoethanol</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>M3148 </td>
 <td>Toxic. Buy small amount.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>24X60 mm No. 1 1/2 cover glass</td>
 <td>VWR</td>
 <td>48393-252</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>22X22 mm No. 1 cover glass</td>
 <td>Gold Seal</td>
 <td>3306</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>High Vacuum Grease</td>
 <td>Dow-Corning</td>
 <td>NA</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Equipment </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>TIRF microscope</td>
 <td>many</td>
 <td>NA</td>
 <td>The TIRF microscope used in this method was home-made.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>IDL (software)</td>
 <td>Exelis</td>
 <td>NA</td>
 <td>Could substitute MATLAB, ImageJ, or other image analysis software.</td>
 </tr>
	 </tbody>
 </table>

flexural rigidity measurements of biopolymers using gliding assays

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires microtubules that are stiff and straight enough to span a significant fraction of the cell diameter. As a result, the microtubule persistence length, a measure of stiffness, has been actively studied for the past two decades1. Nonetheless, open questions remain: short microtubules are 10-50 times less stiff than long microtubules2-4, and even long microtubules have measured persistence lengths which vary by an order of magnitude5-9.
	Here, we present a method to measure microtubule persistence length. The method is based on a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay10. By combining sparse fluorescent labeling of individual microtubules with single particle tracking of individual fluorophores attached to the microtubule, the gliding trajectories of single microtubules are tracked with nanometer-level precision. The persistence length of the trajectories is the same as the persistence length of the microtubule under the conditions used11. An automated tracking routine is used to create microtubule trajectories from fluorophores attached to individual microtubules, and the persistence length of this trajectory is calculated using routines written in IDL.
	This technique is rapidly implementable, and capable of measuring the persistence length of 100 microtubules in one day of experimentation. The method can be extended to measure persistence length under a variety of conditions, including persistence length as a function of length along microtubules. Moreover, the analysis routines used can be extended to myosin-based acting gliding assays, to measure the persistence length of actin filaments as well.

A snapshot from a gliding assay is shown in Figure 2. A good microtubule density is 1-10 microtubules per field of view; substantially more will result in mistracking as microtubules cross each other. A plot of the 11 microtubule trajectories from the gliding assay in Figure 2 is shown in Figure 3. Typical trajectories are 10 to 30 &mu;m long; some trajectories have gaps where one microtubule crosses another. These trajectories may be discarded from analysis....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Flexural Rigidity Measurements of Biopolymers Using Gliding Assays at JoVE.com

Flexural Rigidity Measurements of Biopolymers Using Gliding Assays

A method to measure the persistence length or flexural rigidity of biopolymers is described. The method uses a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay to experimentally determine the persistence length of individual microtubules and is adaptable to actin-based gliding assays.

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which  play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires ...

flexural-rigidity-measurements-of-biopolymers-using-gliding-assays

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

10.7K Views.  Lawrence University. A method to measure the persistence length or flexural rigidity of biopolymers is described. The method uses a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay to experimentally determine the persistence length of individual microtubules and is adaptable to actin-based gliding assays.

Video: Flexural Rigidity Measurements of Biopolymers Using Gliding Assays

Developing Custom Chinese Hamster Ovary-host Cell Protein Assays using Acoustic Membrane Microparticle Technology

Custom assays for unique proteins are often limited to time consuming manual detection and quantitation techniques such as ELISA or Western blots due to the complexity of development on alternate platforms. BioScale's proprietary Acoustic Membrane MicroParticle (AMMP) technology allows sandwich immunoassays to be easily developed for use on the ViBE platform, providing better sensitivity, reproducibility, and automated operation. Provided as an example, this protocol outlines the procedure for developing a custom Chinese Hamster Ovary- Host Cell Protein (CHO-HCP) assay. The general principles outlined here can be followed for the development of a wide variety of immunoassays.
An AMMP assay measures antigen concentration by measuring changes in oscillation frequency caused by the binding of microparticles to the sensor surface to calculate. It consists of four major components: (1) a cartridge that contains a functionalized eight sensor chip (2) antibody labeled magnetic microparticles, (3) hapten tagged antibody that binds to the surface of the functionalized chip (4) samples containing the antigen of interest. BioScale's biosensor is a resonant device that contains eight individual membranes with separate fluidic paths. The membranes change oscillation frequency in response to mass accumulating on the surface and this frequency change is used to quantitate the amount of added mass.
To facilitate use in a wide variety of immunoassays the sensor is functionalized with an anti-hapten antibody. Assay specific antibodies are modified through the covalent conjugation of a hapten tag to one antibody and biotin to the other. The biotin label is used to bind the antibody to streptavidin coupled magnetic beads which, in combination with the hapten-tagged antibody, are used to capture the analyte in a sandwich. The complex binds to the chip through the anti-hapten/hapten interaction. At the end of each assay run the sensors are cleaned with a dilute acid enabling the sequential analysis of columns from a 96-well plate.
Here, we present the method for developing a custom CHO-HCP AMMP assay for bioprocess development. Developing AMMP assays or modifying existing assays into AMMP assays can provide better performance (reproducibility, sensitivity) in complex samples and reduced operator time. The protocol shows the steps for development and the discussion section reviews representative results. For a more in-depth explanation of assay optimization and customization parameters contact BioScale. This kit offers generic bioprocess development assays such as Residual Protein A, Product titer, and CHO-HCP.

Development of custom assays on the ViBE platform for more sensitive, reproducible, automated results in complex matrices is described. The universal cartridge allows assays to be easily adapted for use with custom assays. This versatility enables rapid development and validation of novel assays or automated versions of existing manual assays, exemplified in this video.

Custom assays for unique proteins are often limited to time consuming manual detection and quantitation techniques such as ELISA or Western blots due to ...

Multiplexed Single-molecule Force Proteolysis Measurements Using Magnetic Tweezers

The generation and detection of mechanical forces is a ubiquitous aspect of cell physiology, with direct relevance to cancer metastasis1, atherogenesis2 and wound healing3. In each of these examples, cells both exert force on their surroundings and simultaneously enzymatically remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM). The effect of forces on ECM has thus become an area of considerable interest due to its likely biological and medical importance4-7.
	Single molecule techniques such as optical trapping8, atomic force microscopy9, and magnetic tweezers10,11 allow researchers to probe the function of enzymes at a molecular level by exerting forces on individual proteins. Of these techniques, magnetic tweezers (MT) are notable for their low cost and high throughput. MT exert forces in the range of ~1-100 pN and can provide millisecond temporal resolution, qualities that are well matched to the study of enzyme mechanism at the single-molecule level12. Here we report a highly parallelizable MT assay to study the effect of force on the proteolysis of single protein molecules. We present the specific example of the proteolysis of a trimeric collagen peptide by matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1); however, this assay can be easily adapted to study other substrates and proteases.

In this article we describe the use of magnetic tweezers to study the effect of force on enzymatic proteolysis at the single molecule level in a highly parallelizable manner.

The  generation and detection of mechanical forces is a ubiquitous aspect of cell physiology,  with direct relevance to cancer metastasis1, atherogenesis2 ...

Micro-particle Image Velocimetry for Velocity Profile Measurements of Micro Blood Flows

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows. The images are cross-correlated to give an accurate velocity profile. A protocol is presented for &mu;PIV measurements of blood flows in microchannels. At the scale of the microcirculation, blood cannot be considered a homogeneous fluid, as it is a suspension of flexible particles suspended in plasma, a Newtonian fluid. Shear rate, maximum velocity, velocity profile shape, and flow rate can be derived from these measurements. Several key parameters such as focal depth, particle concentration, and system compliance, are presented in order to ensure accurate, useful data along with examples and representative results for various hematocrits and flow conditions.

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows which are cross-correlated to give an accurate velocity profile. Shear rate, maximum velocity, velocity profile shape, and flow rate, each of which has clinical applications, can be derived from these measurements.

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows. The images are cross-correlated to ...

Longitudinal Measurement of Extracellular Matrix Rigidity in 3D Tumor Models Using Particle-tracking Microrheology

The mechanical microenvironment has been shown to act as a crucial regulator of tumor growth behavior and signaling, which is itself remodeled and modified as part of a set of complex, two-way mechanosensitive interactions. While the development of biologically-relevant 3D tumor models have facilitated mechanistic studies on the impact of matrix rheology on tumor growth, the inverse problem of mapping changes in the mechanical environment induced by tumors remains challenging. Here, we describe the implementation of particle-tracking microrheology (PTM) in conjunction with 3D models of pancreatic cancer as part of a robust and viable approach for longitudinally monitoring physical changes in the tumor microenvironment, in situ. The methodology described here integrates a system of preparing in vitro 3D models embedded in a model extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffold of Type I collagen with fluorescently labeled probes uniformly distributed for position- and time-dependent microrheology measurements throughout the specimen. In vitro tumors are plated and probed in parallel conditions using multiwell imaging plates. Drawing on established methods, videos of tracer probe movements are transformed via the Generalized Stokes Einstein Relation (GSER) to report the complex frequency-dependent viscoelastic shear modulus, G*(&#969;). Because this approach is imaging-based, mechanical characterization is also mapped onto large transmitted-light spatial fields to simultaneously report qualitative changes in 3D tumor size and phenotype. Representative results showing contrasting mechanical response in sub-regions associated with localized invasion-induced matrix degradation as well as system calibration, validation data are presented. Undesirable outcomes from common experimental errors and troubleshooting of these issues are also presented. The 96-well 3D culture plating format implemented in this protocol is conducive to correlation of microrheology measurements with therapeutic screening assays or molecular imaging to gain new insights into impact of treatments or biochemical stimuli on the mechanical microenvironment.

Particle-tracking microrheology can be used to non-destructively quantify and spatially map changes in extracellular matrix mechanical properties in 3D tumor models.

The mechanical microenvironment has been shown to act as a crucial regulator of tumor growth behavior and signaling, which is itself remodeled and ...

Bead Aggregation Assays for the Characterization of Putative Cell Adhesion Molecules

Cell-cell adhesion is fundamental to multicellular life and is mediated by a diverse array of cell surface proteins. However, the adhesive interactions for many of these proteins are poorly understood. Here we present a simple, rapid method for characterizing the adhesive properties of putative homophilic cell adhesion molecules. Cultured HEK293 cells are transfected with DNA plasmid encoding a secreted, epitope-tagged ectodomain of a cell surface protein. Using functionalized beads specific for the epitope tag, the soluble, secreted fusion protein is captured from the culture medium. The coated beads can then be used directly in bead aggregation assays or in fluorescent bead sorting assays to test for homophilic adhesion. If desired, mutagenesis can then be used to elucidate the specific amino acids or domains required for adhesion. This assay requires only small amounts of expressed protein, does not require the production of stable cell lines, and can be accomplished in 4 days.

Here we present a simple, rapid method for characterizing the intrinsic adhesive properties of putative cell adhesion molecules. The secreted, epitope-tagged ectodomain of a cell adhesion molecule is captured from the culture medium on small, uniform functionalized beads. These beads can then be used immediately in simple bead aggregation assays.

Cell-cell adhesion is fundamental to multicellular life and is mediated by a diverse array of cell surface proteins. However, the adhesive interactions ...

Molecular Entanglement and Electrospinnability of Biopolymers

Electrospinning is a fascinating technique to fabricate micro- to nano-scale fibers from a wide variety of materials. For biopolymers, molecular entanglement of the constituent polymers in the spinning dope was found to be an essential prerequisite for successful electrospinning. Rheology is a powerful tool to probe the molecular conformation and interaction of biopolymers. In this report, we demonstrate the protocol for utilizing rheology to evaluate the electrospinnability of two biopolymers, starch and pullulan, from their dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)/water dispersions. Well-formed starch and pullulan fibers with average diameters in the submicron to micron range were obtained. Electrospinnability was evaluated by visual and microscopic observation of the fibers formed. By correlating the rheological properties of the dispersions to their electrospinnability, we demonstrate that molecular conformation, molecular entanglement, and shear viscosity all affect electrospinning. Rheology is not only useful in solvent system selection and process optimization, but also in understanding the mechanism of fiber formation on a molecular level.

Electrospinning is a fascinating technique used to fabricate micro- to nano-scale fibers from a wide variety of materials. Molecular entanglement of the constituent polymers in the spinning dope is essential for successful electrospinning. We present a protocol for utilizing rheology to evaluate the electrospinnability of two biopolymers, starch and pullulan.

Electrospinning is a fascinating technique to fabricate micro- to nano-scale fibers from a wide variety of materials. For biopolymers, molecular ...

Methods for the Self-integration of Megamolecular Biopolymers on the Drying Air-LC Interface

Living organisms that use water are always prone to drying in the environment. Their activities are driven by biopolymer-based micro- and macro-structures, as seen in the cases of moving water in vascular bundles and moisturizing water in skin layers. In this study, we developed a method for assessing the effect of aqueous liquid crystalline (LC) solutions composed of biopolymers on drying. As LC biopolymers have megamolecular weight, we chose to study polysaccharides, cytoskeletal proteins, and DNA. The observation of biopolymer solutions during drying under polarized light reveals milliscale self-integration starting from the unstable air-LC interface. The dynamics of the aqueous LC biopolymer solutions can be monitored by evaporating water from a one-side-open cell. By analyzing the images taken using cross-polarized light, it is possible to recognize the spatio-temporal changes in the orientational order parameter. This method can be useful for the characterization of not only artificial materials in various fields, but also natural living tissues. We believe that it will provide an evaluation method for soft materials in the biomedical and environmental fields.

A method for the drying-induced self-integration of megamolecular biopolymers on the air-liquid crystalline interface is provided here. This methodology will be useful not only for understanding the macroscopic potentials of biopolymers, but also as an evaluation method for soft materials in biomedical and environmental fields.

Living organisms that use water are always prone to drying in the environment. Their activities are driven by biopolymer-based micro- and ...

Power Input Measurements in Stirred Bioreactors at Laboratory Scale

The power input in stirred bioreactors is an important scaling-up parameter and can be measured through the torque that acts on the impeller shaft during rotation. However, the experimental determination of the power input in small-scale vessels is still challenging due to relatively high friction losses inside typically used bushings, bearings and/or shaft seals and the accuracy of commercially available torque meters. Thus, only limited data for small-scale bioreactors, in particular single-use systems, is available in the literature, making comparisons among different single-use systems and their conventional counterparts difficult.
This manuscript provides a protocol on how to measure power inputs in benchtop scale bioreactors over a wide range of turbulence conditions, which can be described by the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re). The aforementioned friction losses are effectively reduced by the use of an air bearing. The procedure on how to set up, conduct and evaluate a torque-based power input measurement, with special focus on cell culture typical agitation conditions with low to moderate turbulence (100 &#60; Re &#60; 2&#183;104), is described in detail. The power input of several multi-use and single-use bioreactors is provided by the dimensionless power number (also called Newton number, P0), which is determined to be in the range of P0 &#8776; 0.3 and P0 &#8776; 4.5 for the maximum Reynolds numbers in the different bioreactors.

The power input in stirred bioreactors can be measured through the torque that acts on the impeller shaft during rotation. This manuscript describes how an air bearing can be used to effectively reduce friction losses observed in mechanical seals and improve the accuracy of power input measurements in small-scale vessels.

The power input in stirred bioreactors is an important scaling-up parameter and can be measured through the torque that acts on the impeller shaft during ...

A Millimeter Scale Flexural Testing System for Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Marine Sponge Spicules

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the flexural behavior of these LBBSs is important for understanding the origins of their remarkable mechanical functions.
We describe a protocol for performing three-point bending tests using a custom-built mechanical testing device that can measure forces ranging from 10-5 to 101 N and displacements ranging from 10-7 to 10-2 m. The primary advantage of this mechanical testing device is that the force and displacement capacities can be easily adjusted for different LBBSs. The device&#39;s operating principle is similar to that of an atomic force microscope. Namely, force is applied to the LBBS by a load point that is attached to the end of a cantilever. The load point displacement is measured by a fiber optic displacement sensor and converted into a force using the measured cantilever stiffness. The device&#39;s force range can be adjusted by using cantilevers of different stiffnesses.
The device&#39;s capabilities are demonstrated by performing three-point bending tests on the skeletal elements of the marine sponge Euplectella aspergillum. The skeletal elements&#8212;known as spicules&#8212;are silica fibers that are approximately 50 &#181;m in diameter. We describe the procedures for calibrating the mechanical testing device, mounting the spicules on a three-point bending fixture with a &#8776;1.3 mm span, and performing a bending test. The force applied to the spicule and its deflection at the location of the applied force are measured.

We present a protocol for performing three-point bending tests on sub-millimeter scale fibers using a custom-built mechanical testing device. The device can measure forces ranging from 20 &#181;N up to 10 N and can therefore accommodate a variety of fiber sizes.

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the ...

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate LAL Assays

Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.