The authors would like to thank Dr. Jon Nelson for technical support of EMG and electrogoniometer equipment used here.

The Institutional Review Board at The College of St. Scholastica has approved the study under which this protocol was developed and tested.
1. Fabrication of the visual screen
<ol>
	<li>Cut the &#190; inch (1.9 cm) diameter PVC pipe into various lengths: two 30 inch (76.2 cm) pieces (screen base); two 8 inch (20.3 cm) pieces (screen base); one 44 inch (111.8 cm) piece (vertical screen support); and one 32 inch (81.3 cm) piece (screen fabric holder).</li>
	<li>Place an end cap on one end of each 30 inch (76.2 cm) piece, and a 90&#176; PVC elbow on the other end. Insert 8 inch (20.3 cm) pieces into the remaining open ends of both elbows. Connect open ends of the two 8 inch (20.3 cm) pieces with the&#160;PVC tee to create a screen base.</li>
	<li>Insert the&#160;44 inch (111.8 cm) PVC piece into the&#160;vertical portion of the PVC tee&#160;to create a vertical support for screen. Place the&#160;45&#176; PVC elbow on the open end of the 44 inch (111.8 cm) piece. Insert the&#160;32 inch (81.3 cm) piece into the open end of the 45&#176; PVC elbow to create a screen fabric holder. Place an end cap on the open end of the 32 inch (81.3 cm) piece.</li>
	<li>Place dishtowels on top of one another to ensure fabric opacity. Secure to the 32 inch (81.3 cm) piece with athletic tape. The fully assembled screen can be seen in Figure 1.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of the testing equipment
<ol>
	<li>Calibrate electrogoniometer and electromyography (EMG) sensors according to the manufacturers&#8217; instructions.</li>
	<li>Turn on the continuous passive motion (CPM) machine and activate Extension/Flexion mode. Program the CPM machine to move through 90&#176; to 130&#176; of elbow extension at a speed of 0.23&#176;/s.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of the participant for TDPM testing
<ol>
	<li>Seat the participant in a standard height chair (18 inch/45.7&#160;cm), ensuring sitting with a straight back and feet flat on floor.</li>
	<li>Verbally prepare the participant for the EMG sensor and the electrogoniometer placement using a standardized script: &#8220;To begin, I am going to prepare your skin to attach sensors. They will help record movement and ensure your muscles are relaxed during the test. I&#8217;m going to mark landmarks on your arm and start attaching the sensors, so you can just relax in the position I place you in.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Attach the biceps brachii and the triceps brachii EMG sensors.
	<ol>
		<li>Manually resist elbow flexion to locate the biceps brachii muscle belly and mark the central point of the muscle belly with a small dot of washable marker to denote the location for the EMG sensor placement. Prepare the skin by removing the dead skin cells followed by scrubbing with an alcohol swab, and then attach the EMG sensor.</li>
		<li>Manually resist elbow extension to locate the muscle belly of the lateral head of the triceps brachii and mark the central point in the bulk of the muscle belly with a small dot of washable marker to denote the location for the EMG sensor placement. Prepare the skin by removing dead skin cells followed by scrubbing with an alcohol swab, and then attach the EMG sensor.</li>
		<li>Test the EMG function by evoking an isometric biceps brachii contraction, followed by an isometric triceps brachii contraction, and observing for EMG activation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Attach the electrogoniometer to the participant.
	<ol>
		<li>Determine the midpoint of the dorsal aspect of the wrist and mark with a washable marker.</li>
		<li>Palpate the most prominent aspect of the lateral epicondyle and mark with a washable marker.</li>
		<li>Palpate the greater tubercle of the humerus and mark with a washable marker. Verify the greater tubercle location by passively moving the testing arm through internal and external rotation of the humerus as needed.</li>
		<li>Attach one end of the string to the lateral epicondyle mark using paper tape. Pull the string taut, connecting it with the dorsal wrist midpoint mark.</li>
		<li>Trace a line along the proximal forearm in line with the string using a washable marker.</li>
		<li>Move the free end of the string to the greater tubercle mark and pull the string taut.</li>
		<li>Trace a line along the distal humerus in line with the string using a washable marker, and then remove the string.</li>
		<li>Place the distal paddle of the electrogoniometer along the path of the traced line, 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) distally from the lateral epicondyle mark.</li>
		<li>Place the proximal paddle of electrogoniometer along the path of the traced line, 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) proximally from the lateral epicondyle mark. Secure the remaining components of the electrogoniometer to the skin using paper tape.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Position the participant&#8217;s upper extremity comfortably in the CPM machine.
	<ol>
		<li>Adjust the height and orientation of the CPM machine to achieve a position of 90&#176; sagittal plane shoulder flexion, 90&#176; elbow flexion, and a neutral forearm. Align the participant&#8217;s lateral epicondyle with the rotational axis of the CPM machine.</li>
		<li>Adjust the CPM machine hand support to fit comfortably with the palm of the participant&#8217;s hand and secure the forearm via a wrist strap. Figure 1 shows the final participant setup for TDPM testing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Administration of the TDPM test
<ol>
	<li>Inform the participant of the testing procedure with the following standardized verbal information: &#8220;During this test, the machine is going to move very slowly to either straighten or bend your elbow. We will say &#8220;begin&#8221; at the start of each trial, there will be eight trials. When I say begin, the machine may or may not move your arm. Please press the button as soon as you feel your arm move, but only when you feel movement. If you don&#8217;t feel movement, we will stop the trial after a period of time; try to pay attention until we stop the trial. This is the button you&#8217;ll be using. Please press the button right now to test it.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Hand the participant the electrogoniometer event marking trigger switch and test the switch.</li>
	<li>Inform the participant of additional aspects of the procedure: &#8220;In between each trial, whether your arm moved or not, we will take your arm out of the machine and straighten it, and then place it back in the machine. Please remain relaxed. Do you have any questions about the test? We will be using this curtain to block your vision during this test and place this hearing protection over your ears to minimize any sounds you might hear during the testing.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Occlude visual input by blocking the view of the arm being tested and the CPM machine using a visual screen. Drape screen material at the participant&#8217;s shoulder to avoid sensory input during arm movement. Diminish auditory input by placing noise-cancelling headphones on the participant (see Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Loudly state &#8220;begin,&#8221; and wait the corresponding amount of time per trial before initiating movement of the CPM machine to decrease participant guessing when movement will begin19. Standardized delay times are shown in Table 1.</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Trial Number</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>5</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>7</td>
			<td>8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Delay (s)</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>Catch</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>Catch</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Standardized time delays and catch trial locations. Varied trial start time delays are included to prevent participant attempts to guess when movement will begin. Catch trials are included to test whether or not participant is actually detecting movement19,31.
<ol start="6">
	<li>Observe for activation of biceps brachii and triceps brachii muscles by monitoring EMG sensor feedback readings to ensure that the participant does not attempt to use active movement to assist in movement detection.
	<ol>
		<li>If muscle activation is noted, stop the trial and use the following standardized script: &#8220;Your muscles are activating. Please try to keep your arm relaxed during the test.&#8221; This trial should be noted for exclusion from data analysis, with the researcher proceeding with resetting the participant and CPM to start the next trial (protocol step 4.7).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Between each trial, remove the participant&#8217;s testing arm from the CPM machine and return the CPM machine to a 90&#176; start position. Passively move the participant&#8217;s elbow through full extension and then back to 90&#176; flexion to standardize the muscle spindle movement history27,28. Place the arm back in the CPM machine for the next trial.</li>
	<li>Complete eight trials, including two &#8220;catch&#8221; trials where the participant&#8217;s arm is not moved19. Terminate each trial (catch and non-catch) when the participant depresses the trigger switch, or after 15 seconds if the trigger switch is not depressed.</li>
	<li>If during a catch trial a participant verbally reports they cannot feel movement, or depresses the trigger switch, use the following standardized response: &#8220;Your arm did not actually move during that trial. I know it&#8217;s hard to feel, the machine moves very slowly; try to concentrate and push the button as soon as you feel your arm move or that your arm position has changed.&#8221;</li>
</ol>
5. Calculation of participant&#8217;s TDPM score
<ol>
	<li>Using the electrogoniometer tracing, identify the electrogoniometer angle measurement for the point at which the CPM machine movement started, and for the point at which the participant depressed the trigger switch indicating movement was felt. See Figure 2 for a representative example.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61391/61391fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Example electrogoniometer tracing with detection point.&#160;The electrogoniometer line tracing (green line), start point of the continuous passive motion (CPM) machine movement, and the point at which participant indicated movement was detected (first blue peak) are shown. The difference between electrogoniometer readings at the start of the trial (pink circle) and at detection point (orange circle) determines the TDPM value for that trial. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61391/61391fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="2">
	<li>Subtract the starting angle from the final angle, thus identifying the number of degrees the CPM moved; this is the participant&#8217;s elbow TDPM value for that trial.</li>
	<li>To determine participant&#8217;s overall TDPM score, remove the smallest and largest TDPM values from the six non-catch trials, and then average the remaining four trial scores29.</li>
</ol>

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W., Sharma, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+age+and+osteoarthritis+on+knee+proprioception.">Effect of age and osteoarthritis on knee proprioception.</a> Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism. 40 (12), 2260-2265 (1997).</li><li>Dunn, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+change+in+somatosensation+across+the+lifespan.">Measuring change in somatosensation across the lifespan.</a> American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 69 (3), (2015).</li><li>Alghadir, A., Zafar, H., Iqbal, Z., Al-Eisa, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+sitting+postures+and+shoulder+position+on+the+cervicocephalic+kinesthesia+in+healthy+young+males.">Effect of sitting postures and shoulder position on the cervicocephalic kinesthesia in healthy young males.</a> Somatosensory &amp; Motor Research. 33 (2), 93-98 (2016).</li></ol>

The authors declare they have no competing financial interests.

The presented protocol describes how to measure elbow TDPM in a standardized fashion using a common CPM machine to provide the passive movement. Across 20 healthy participants the average elbow TDPM measurement was found to be similar to the average value identified in previous studies using other TDPM measuring setups7,19,32, and produced reliable results across testing sessions. TDPM of the ipsilesional elbow among the eight p...

Proprioceptive information is an important contributor to the control of human movement. Proprioceptive deficits accompany a wide range of neurologic conditions such as stroke1,2,3,4,5,6, Parkinson&#8217;s disease7, and sensory neuropathies8. Orthopedic injuries such as ligament and muscle tears have also been shown to reduce proprioceptive function9. The construct of proprioception is often tested in clinical outcome measures via detection of provider-applied small alterations in finger or toe position10,11,12,13,14. Such measures produce relatively coarse measurements: &#8220;absent&#8221;, &#8220;impaired&#8221;, &#8220;normal&#8221;12. While sufficient for detection of gross proprioceptive impairments, laboratory mechanical testing methods are required to precisely measure subtle proprioceptive impairments14,15,16.
Researchers and clinicians often divide proprioception into submodalities for measurement. The most commonly investigated submodalities of proprioception are joint position sense (JPS) and kinesthesia, typically defined as the sense of movement3,16,17. Joint position sense is often tested via active matching tasks, where individuals replicate a reference joint angle18,19. Kinesthesia is commonly measured using the threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM), whereby a participant&#8217;s limb is passively moved slowly, with the participant indicating the point at which movement is first detected16,17,19. Measurement of TDPM typically requires use of specialized equipment to provide the slow passive movement and denote the point of detection17.
Valid and reliable results have been found at different joints using TDPM methods9,16,19,20,21,22. However, there is considerable variation in TDPM equipment and methods, creating a challenge for comparison of findings across studies16,17. Laboratories often develop their own limb movement and measurement devices, or use expensive commercial devices and software16. Passive movement speeds also vary; movement speed is known to affect detection thresholds7,16,23. A standardized, easily reproducible method capable of quantifying TDPM across a range of impairment levels is needed. Because the anatomy and physiology of each joint differs, protocols should be joint specific19. The protocol outlined here is specific to the elbow joint. However, the methods of this protocol may be useful to establish protocols for other joints.
To increase generalizability across sensorimotor research laboratories, the preferred apparatus for providing the passive movement for elbow TDPM testing would be commercially available at an affordable cost. To this end, an elbow continuous passive movement (CPM) machine (available speed range 0.23&#176;/s &#8211; 2.83&#176;/s) was chosen to produce the motorized, consistent motion. CPM machines are commonly found in rehabilitation hospitals and medical supply stores and can be rented or borrowed to reduce research costs. Additional equipment requirements include items commonly found in sensorimotor laboratories (i.e., electrogoniometer and electromyography (EMG) sensors), and hardware stores (e.g., PVC pipe, string and tape).
Two different groups were tested to explore the measurement properties of this TDPM protocol: healthy adults and adults with chronic stroke. For the adults with chronic stroke, the ipsilesional (i.e., less affected) arm was tested. Kinesthetic sense in the ipsilesional elbow in adults with chronic stroke may appear normal with clinical testing, but impaired when evaluated using quantitative laboratory methods5,15. This example illustrates the importance of developing and using sensitive and precise measures of somatosensory impairment and makes this a useful population for testing purposes. For validation of this protocol, we used the known groups method24. We compared TDPM to another quantitative measure of kinesthesia, the Brief Kinesthesia Test (BKT). The BKT has been shown to be sensitive to ipsilesional upper limb impairment post stroke25. The tablet-based version (tBKT) was used in this study because it is the same test as the BKT, administered on a tablet with more trials. The tBKT has been shown to be stable in one-week test-retest measurement and sensitive to proprioceptive knockdown26. It was hypothesized that the elbow TDPM and tBKT outcomes would be correlated as sensorimotor control of the elbow contributes to BKT performance26.
The purpose of this paper is to outline a standardized method of measuring elbow TDPM that is reproducible using common equipment. Data is presented regarding reliability and initial validity testing of the method, as well as feasibility of use for persons with no known pathology, and those who were hypothesized to have mild somatosensory impairment.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3/4 inch diameter PVC pipe</td>
			<td>Charlotte Pipe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Pipe to be cut into lengths of: 30 inches/76.2 cm (x2); 8 inches/20.3 cm (x2); 44 inches/111.8 cm (x1); 32 inches/81.3 cm (x1).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3/4 inch diameter PVC pipe end caps (x3)</td>
			<td>Charlotte Pipe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>45&#176; PVC elbow (x1)</td>
			<td>Charlotte Pipe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>90&#176; PVC elbows (x2)</td>
			<td>Charlotte Pipe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Athletic tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Delsys acquisition software (EMGworks)</td>
			<td>Delsys</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-sided tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Duct tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to assist in removal of dead skin cells on participant&#39;s skin prior to EMG sensor placement.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Elbow Continuous Passive Motion (CPM) Machine</td>
			<td>Artromot</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chattanooga Artromot E2 Compact Elbow CPM; Model 2038</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrogoniometer</td>
			<td>Biometrics, Ltd</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flour sack dishcloths (x2)</td>
			<td>Room Essentials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fabric used for creation of visual screen.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Handheld external trigger switch</td>
			<td>Qualisys</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Trigger switch used for electrogoniometer event marking.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hearing occlusion headphones</td>
			<td>Coby</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Mountain Falls</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ruler with inch markings</td>
			<td>Westcott</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard height chair</td>
			<td>KI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>String</td>
			<td>Quality Park</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Approximately 15 inches of string needed. String used for standardization of electrogoniometer placement.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trigno Goniometer Adapter</td>
			<td>Delsys</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trigno Wireless Electromyography Sensors</td>
			<td>Delsys</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Washable marker</td>
			<td>Crayola</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Washcloth</td>
			<td>Aramark</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used in combination with isopropyl alcohol for cleaning participant&#39;s skin prior to EMG sensor placement.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a standardized method for measurement of elbow kinesthesia

Proprioception is an important component of controlled movement. The threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) is a commonly used method for quantifying the proprioceptive submodality of kinesthesia in research settings. The TDPM paradigm has been found to be valid and reliable; however, the equipment and methods used for TDPM vary between studies. In particular, the research laboratory apparatuses for producing passive movement of an extremity are often custom designed by individual laboratories or inaccessible due to high cost. There is a need for a standardized, valid, and reliable method for measuring TDPM using readily available equipment. The purpose of this protocol is to provide a standardized method for measurement of TDPM at the elbow that is economical, easy to administer, and that produces quantitative results for measurement purposes in research-based settings. This method was tested on 20 healthy adults without neurological impairment, and eight adults with chronic stroke. The results obtained suggest this method is a reliable way to quantify elbow TDPM in healthy adults, and provides initial support for validity. Researchers seeking a balance between equipment affordability and measurement precision are most likely to find this protocol of benefit.

Participants: 
Using the protocol presented here, elbow TDPM was measured in an academic research laboratory for two different groups of individuals: 20 healthy adults, and eight adults with chronic stroke. Participants for both groups were recruited from the community using fliers, emails, and word-of-mouth. The healthy adults (14 females, six males; mean age (SD) = 28 (7.9) years; 19 right- and one left-handed) were tested to generate representative results for an unimpaired population. Inclusion ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Standardized Method for Measurement of Elbow Kinesthesia at JoVE.com

A Standardized Method for Measurement of Elbow Kinesthesia

Here, we present a standardized method for measurement of elbow passive kinesthesia using the threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) that is appropriate for a research setting.

Proprioception is an important component of controlled movement. The threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) is a commonly used method for ...

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6.9K Views.  The College of St. Scholastica. Here, we present a standardized method for measurement of elbow passive kinesthesia using the threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) that is appropriate for a research setting.

Video: A Standardized Method for Measurement of Elbow Kinesthesia

The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress

This video publication explains in detail the experimental protocol of the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to measure offensive aggression and defensive behavior in a semi natural setting. The most important behavioral elements performed by the resident and the intruder are demonstrated in the video and illustrated using artistic drawings. The use of the resident intruder paradigm for acute and chronic social stress experiments is explained as well. Finally, some brief tests and criteria are presented to distinguish aggression from its more violent and pathological forms.

This video shows the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to measure offensive aggression, defensive behavior and violence in a semi-natural setting. The use of the paradigm for social stress experiments is explained as well.

This video publication explains in detail the experimental protocol of the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to ...

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

A Method for Remotely Silencing Neural Activity in Rodents During Discrete Phases of Learning

This protocol describes how to temporarily and remotely silence neuronal activity in discrete brain regions while animals are engaged in learning and memory tasks. The approach combines pharmacogenetics (Designer-Receptors-Exclusively-Activated-by-Designer-Drugs) with a behavioral paradigm (sensory preconditioning) that is designed to distinguish between different forms of learning. Specifically, viral-mediated delivery is used to express a genetically modified inhibitory G-protein coupled receptor (the Designer Receptor) into a discrete brain region in the rodent. Three weeks later, when designer receptor expression levels are high, a pharmacological agent (the Designer Drug) is administered systemically 30 min prior to a specific behavioral session. The drug has affinity for the designer receptor and thus results in inhibition of neurons that express the designer receptor, but is otherwise biologically inert. The brain region remains silenced for 2-5 hr (depending on the dose and route of administration). Upon completion of the behavioral paradigm, brain tissue is assessed for correct placement and receptor expression. This approach is particularly useful for determining the contribution of individual brain regions to specific components of behavior and can be used across any number of behavioral paradigms.

This protocol describes how to temporarily and remotely silence neuronal activity in discrete brain regions while rats are engaged in learning and memory tasks. The approach combines pharmacogenetics (Designer-Receptors-Exclusively-Activated-by-Designer-Drugs) with a behavioral paradigm (sensory preconditioning) that is designed to distinguish between different components of learning.

This protocol describes how to temporarily and remotely silence neuronal activity in discrete brain regions while animals are engaged in learning and ...

A General Method for Evaluating Deep Brain Stimulation Effects on Intravenous Methamphetamine Self-Administration

Substance use disorders, particularly to methamphetamine, are devastating, relapsing diseases that disproportionally affect young people. There is a need for novel, effective and practical treatment strategies that are validated in animal models. Neuromodulation, including deep brain stimulation (DBS) therapy, refers to the use of electricity to influence pathological neuronal activity and has shown promise for psychiatric disorders, including drug dependence. DBS in clinical practice involves the continuous delivery of stimulation into brain structures using an implantable pacemaker-like system that is programmed externally by a physician to alleviate symptoms. This treatment will be limited in methamphetamine users due to challenging psychosocial situations. Electrical treatments that can be delivered intermittently, non-invasively and remotely from the drug-use setting will be more realistic. This article describes the delivery of intracranial electrical stimulation that is temporally and spatially separate from the drug-use environment for the treatment of IV methamphetamine dependence. Methamphetamine dependence is rapidly developed in rodents using an operant paradigm of intravenous (IV) self-administration that incorporates a period of extended access to drug and demonstrates both escalation of use and high motivation to obtain drug.

This article describes the delivery of intracranial electrical stimulation that is temporally and spatially separate from the drug-use environment for the treatment of IV methamphetamine dependence.

Substance use disorders, particularly to methamphetamine, are devastating, relapsing diseases that disproportionally affect young people.  There is a need ...

A Method to Test the Effect of Environmental Cues on Mating Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

An individual's sexual drive is influenced by genotype, experience and environmental conditions. How these factors interact to modulate sexual behaviors remains poorly understood. In Drosophila melanogaster, environmental cues, such as food availability, affect mating activity offering a tractable system to investigate the mechanisms modulating sexual behavior. In D. melanogaster, environmental cues are often sensed via the chemosensory gustatory and olfactory systems. Here, we present a method to test the effect of environmental chemical cues on mating behavior. The assay consists of a small mating arena containing food medium and a mating couple. The mating frequency for each couple is continuously monitored for 24 h. Here we present the applicability of this assay to test environmental compounds from an external source through a pressurized air system as well as manipulation of the environmental components directly in the mating arena. The use of a pressurized air system is especially useful to test the effect of very volatile compounds, while manipulating components directly in the mating arena can be of value to ascertain a compound's presence. This assay can be adapted to answer questions about the influence of genetic and environmental cues on mating behavior and fecundity as well as other male and female reproductive behaviors.

A Method to Test the Effect of Environmental Cues on Mating Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

We demonstrate an assay to analyze the environmental and genetic cues that influence mating behavior in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.

An individual's sexual drive is influenced by genotype, experience and environmental conditions. How these factors interact to modulate sexual behaviors ...

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons (Columba Livia)

Change blindness is a phenomenon of visual attention, whereby changes to a visual display go unnoticed under certain specific circumstances. While many laboratory procedures have been developed that produce change blindness in humans, the flicker paradigm has emerged as a particularly effective method. In the flicker paradigm, two visual displays are presented in alternation with one another. If successive displays are separated by a short inter-stimulus interval (ISI), change detection is impaired. The simplicity of the procedure and the clear, performance-based operational definition of change blindness make the flicker paradigm well-suited to comparative research using nonhuman animals. Indeed, a variant has been developed that can be implemented in operant chambers to study change blindness in pigeons. Results indicate that pigeons, like humans, are worse at detecting the location of a change if two consecutive displays are separated in time by a blank ISI. Furthermore, pigeons&#39; change detection is consistent with an active, location-by-location search process that requires selective attention. The flicker task thus has the potential to contribute to investigations of the dynamics of pigeons&#39; selective spatial attention in comparison to humans. It also illustrates that the phenomenon of change blindness is not exclusive to humans&#39; visual perception, but may instead be a general consequence of selective attention. Finally, while the useful aspects of attention are widely appreciated and understood, it is also important to acknowledge that they may be accompanied by specific imperfections such as change blindness, and that these imperfections have consequences across a wide range of contexts.

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia

Change blindness is a phenomenon of visual attention, whereby changes to a visual display go unnoticed under certain specific circumstances. This protocol describes a variation on the flicker paradigm for investigating change blindness that is appropriate and effective for research with pigeons.

Change blindness is a phenomenon of visual attention, whereby changes to a visual display go unnoticed under certain specific circumstances. While many ...

A New Method for Inducing a Depression-Like Behavior in Rats

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is no existing format for studying the mechanism of action, prevention, containment, and treatment of contagious depression. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to establish the first animal model of contagious depression.
Healthy rats can contract depressive behaviors if exposed to depressed rats. Depression is induced in rats by subjecting them to several manipulations of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) over 5 weeks, as described in the protocol. A successful sucrose preference test confirmed the development of depression in the rats. The CUS-exposed rats were then caged with na&#239;ve rats from the contagion group (1 na&#239;ve rat/2 depressed rats in a cage) for an additional 5 weeks. 30 social groups were created from the combination of CUS-exposed rats and na&#239;ve rats.
This proposed depression-contagion protocol in animals consists mainly of cohabiting CUS-exposed and healthy rats for 5 weeks. To ensure that this method works, a series of tests are carried out - first, the sucrose preference test upon inducing depression to rats, then, the sucrose preference test, alongside the open field and forced-swim tests at the end of the cohabitation period. Throughout the experiment, rats are given tags and are always returned to their cages after each test.
A few limitations to this method are the weak differences recorded between the experimental and control groups in the sucrose preference test and the irreversible traumatic outcome of the forced swim test. These may be worth considering for suitability before any future application of the protocol. Nonetheless, following the experiment, na&#239;ve rats developed contagion depression after 5 weeks of sharing the same cage with the CUS-exposed rats.

This protocol describes a new model by which healthy rats could contract depression over a given time periodthrough contagion by exposure to chronic unpredictable stressed (CUS) rats.

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is ...

A Simple Non-invasive Method for Temporary Knockdown of Upper Limb Proprioception

Proprioception may be the least well measured of all contributors to the neural control of movement. New precise, reliable measures of proprioception are needed for clinical diagnosis of impairment, and to measure outcomes of proprioceptive training. The purpose of this simple, non-invasive method is to temporarily knockdown upper limb proprioception in healthy adults, to an extent that would be useful in the development and testing of upper limb proprioception measures. Knockdown models have two main advantages over studying humans with impaired proprioception: participant availability and the ability to control the extent of impairment across participants. Current published methods of temporary proprioception knockdown of the upper limb, such as ischemic nerve blocks and cryotherapy, are invasive, impractical, or uncomfortable for the participant. Here, vibration over the ulnar groove was used to reduce upper limb proprioception. High frequency vibration may reduce proprioceptive acuity by inhibiting pacinian corpuscle-induced input. The effect of vibration used in this protocol was confirmed using two quantitative measures. This method was simple to administer, comfortable for participants, and practical.

The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate a practical method to temporarily interfere with proprioception in the upper limb of healthy humans.

Proprioception may be the least well measured of all contributors to the neural control of movement. New precise, reliable measures of proprioception are ...

Impact of High-intensity Interval Exercise and Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise on the Cardiac Troponin T Level at an Early Stage of Training

An elevation in cardiac troponin T (cTnT), as a highly specific biomarker of cardiomyocyte damage, after moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MCE) has been described. The exercise-induced cTnT response distorts the diagnostic role of the cTnT assay. Although high-intensity interval exercise (HIE) is growing in popularity and concerns remain about its safety, available data related to cTnT release after HIE is limited, which hampers the use of HIE as a health intervention. Here, we present three representative HIE protocols [traditional HIE (repeated 4 min cycling at 90% V&#775;O2max interspersed with 3 min rest, 200 kJ/session); sprint interval exercise (SIE, repeated 1 min cycling at 120% V&#775;O2max interspersed with 1.5 min rest, 200 kJ/session); and repeated sprint exercise (RSE, 40 x 6 s all-out sprints interspersed with 9 s rest)] and one representative MCE protocol (continuous cycling exercise at an intensity of 60% V&#775;O2max, 200 kJ/session). Forty-seven sedentary, overweight young women were randomly assigned to one of four groups (HIE, SIE, RSE, and MCE). Six bouts of respective exercise were performed by every single group, with each being 48 h apart. Meanwhile, for four groups, the duration of the entire testing period was identical, being 10 days. Before and after the first and final exercise bouts, an assessment was conducted of cTnT. The current study provides a frame of reference giving a clear picture of how a specific exercise session affects the circulating cTnT concentration at the early stage of training. The information may assist with clinical interpretations of post-exercise cTnT elevation and guide the prescription of exercise, especially for HIE.

Here, we present protocols of high-intensity interval and moderate-intensity continuous exercise to observe the response of circulating cardiac troponin T (cTnT) concentration to acute exercise over 10 days. The information may assist with clinical interpretations of post-exercise cTnT elevation and guide the prescription of exercise.

An elevation in cardiac troponin T (cTnT), as a highly specific biomarker of cardiomyocyte damage, after moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MCE) has ...

A Standardized Protocol for Preference Testing to Assess Fish Welfare

Animal welfare assessment techniques try to take into consideration the specific needs and wants of the animal in question. Providing enrichment (the addition of physical objects or conspecifics in the housing environment) is often a way to give captive animals the opportunity to choose who or what they interact with and how they spend their time. A fundamental component of the aquatic environment that is often overlooked in captivity, however, is the ability for the animal to choose to engage in physical exercise. For many animals, including fish, exercise is an important aspect of their life history, and is known to have many health benefits, including positive changes in the brain and behavior. Here we present a method for assessing habitat preferences in captive animals. The protocol could easily be adapted to look at a variety of environmental factors (e.g., gravel versus sand as a substrate, plastic plants versus live plants, low flow versus high flow of water) in different aquatic species, or for use with terrestrial species. Statistical assessment of preference is carried out using Jacob&#39;s preference index, which ranks the habitats from -1 (avoidance) to +1 (most preferred). With this information, it can be determined what the animal wants from a welfare perspective, including their preferred location.

A fundamental aspect of assessing the welfare of animals in captivity is to ask whether the animals have what they want. Here, we present a protocol to determine housing preference in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) with respect to the presence/absence of environmental enrichment and access to flowing of water.

Animal welfare assessment techniques try to take into consideration the specific needs and wants of the animal in question. Providing enrichment (the ...