Name: studying inherited immunity in a caenorhabditis elegans model of microsporidia infection
Uploaded: 2022-04-06T14:10:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Inherited Immunity in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model of Microsporidia Infection at JoVE.com

We are grateful to Winnie Zhao and Yin Chen Wan for providing helpful comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (Grant #522691522691).

The present study uses wild-type C. elegans Bristol strain N2 grown at 21 &#176;C.
1. Preparation of media
<ol>
	<li>Prepare M9 media as per previous report21,22.</li>
	<li>Prepare nematode growth medium (NGM) as per previous report21,22. Pour 12 mL of NGM per 6 cm plate or 30 mL per 10 cm plate.</li>
	<li>Prepare Escherichia coli strain OP5...

<ol>
	<li>Tetreau, G., Dhinaut, J., Gourbal, B., Moret, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trans-generational+immune+priming+in+invertebrates:+current+knowledge+and+future+prospects.">Trans-generational immune priming in invertebrates: current knowledge and future prospects.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 10, 1938 (2019).</li><li>Au, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR/Cas9+methodology+for+the+generation+of+knockout+deletions+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">CRISPR/Cas9 methodology for the generation of knockout deletions in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics. 9 (1), 135-144 (2019).</li><li>Kamath, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+RNAi+screening+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Genome-wide RNAi screening in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Methods. 30 (4), 313-321 (2003).</li><li>The C. elegans Sequencing Consortium. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome+sequence+of+the+nematode+C.+elegans:+a+platform+for+investigating+biology.">Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: a platform for investigating biology.</a> Science. 282 (5396), 2012-2018 (1998).</li><li>Yoshimura, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recompleting+the+Caenorhabditis+elegans+genome.">Recompleting the Caenorhabditis elegans genome.</a> Genome Research. 29, 1009-1022 (2019).</li><li>Weinhouse, C., Truong, L., Meyer, J. N., Allard, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caenorhabditis+elegans+as+an+emerging+model+system+in+environmental+epigenetics:+C.+elegans+as+an+environmental+epigenetics+model.">Caenorhabditis elegans as an emerging model system in environmental epigenetics: C. elegans as an environmental epigenetics model.</a> Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. 59 (7), 560-575 (2018).</li><li>Ermolaeva, M. A., Schumacher, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insights+from+the+worm:+the+C.+elegans+model+for+innate+immunity.">Insights from the worm: the C. elegans model for innate immunity.</a> Seminars in Immunology. 26 (4), 303-309 (2014).</li><li>Willis, A. R., Sukhdeo, R., Reinke, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remembering+your+enemies:+mechanisms+of+within-generation+and+multigenerational+immune+priming+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Remembering your enemies: mechanisms of within-generation and multigenerational immune priming in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> TheFEBS Journal. 288 (6), 1759-1770 (2020).</li><li>Burton, N. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cysteine+synthases+CYSL-1+and+CYSL-2+mediate+C.+elegans+heritable+adaptation+to+P.+vranovensis+infection.">Cysteine synthases CYSL-1 and CYSL-2 mediate C. elegans heritable adaptation to P. vranovensis infection.</a> Nature Communications. 11, 1741 (2020).</li><li>Wadi, L., Reinke, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+of+microsporidia:+an+extremely+successful+group+of+eukaryotic+intracellular+parasites.">Evolution of microsporidia: an extremely successful group of eukaryotic intracellular parasites.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 16, 1008276 (2020).</li><li>Han, B., Takvorian, P. M., Weiss, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Invasion+of+host+cells+by+microsporidia.">Invasion of host cells by microsporidia.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 11, 172 (2020).</li><li>Tamim El Jarkass, H., Reinke, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+ins+and+outs+of+host-microsporidia+interactions+during+invasion,+proliferation+and+exit.">The ins and outs of host-microsporidia interactions during invasion, proliferation and exit.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 22 (11), 13247 (2020).</li><li>Balla, K. M., La&#382;eti&#263;, V., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+variation+in+the+roles+of+C.+elegans+autophagy+components+during+microsporidia+infection.">Natural variation in the roles of C. elegans autophagy components during microsporidia infection.</a> PLoS ONE. 14, 0216011 (2019).</li><li>Szumowski, S. C., Estes, K. A., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparing+a+discreet+escape:+Microsporidia+reorganize+host+cytoskeleton+prior+to+non-lytic+exit+from+C.+elegans+intestinal+cells.">Preparing a discreet escape: Microsporidia reorganize host cytoskeleton prior to non-lytic exit from C. elegans intestinal cells.</a> Worm. 1 (4), 207-211 (2012).</li><li>Balla, K. M., Luallen, R. J., Bakowski, M. A., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-to-cell+spread+of+microsporidia+causes+Caenorhabditis+elegans+organs+to+form+syncytia.">Cell-to-cell spread of microsporidia causes Caenorhabditis elegans organs to form syncytia.</a> Nature Microbiology. 1 (11), 1-6 (2016).</li><li>Reinke, A. W., Balla, K. M., Bennett, E. J., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+microsporidia+host-exposed+proteins+reveals+a+repertoire+of+rapidly+evolving+proteins.">Identification of microsporidia host-exposed proteins reveals a repertoire of rapidly evolving proteins.</a> Nature Communications. 8, 14023 (2017).</li><li>Bakowski, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ubiquitin-mediated+response+to+microsporidia+and+virus+infection+in+C.+elegans.">Ubiquitin-mediated response to microsporidia and virus infection in C. elegans.</a> PLoS Pathogen. 10, 1004200 (2014).</li><li>Reddy, K. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+intracellular+pathogen+response+pathway+promotes+proteostasis+in+C.+elegans.">An intracellular pathogen response pathway promotes proteostasis in C. elegans.</a> Current Biology. 27 (22), 3544-3553 (2017).</li><li>Willis, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+parental+transcriptional+response+to+microsporidia+infection+induces+inherited+immunity+in+offspring.">A parental transcriptional response to microsporidia infection induces inherited immunity in offspring.</a> Science Advances. 7 (19), (2021).</li><li>Tamim El Jarkass, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+intestinally+secreted+host+factor+promotes+microsporidia+invasion+of+C.+elegans.">An intestinally secreted host factor promotes microsporidia invasion of C. elegans.</a> eLife. 11, 72458 (2022).</li><li>Solis, G. M., Petrascheck, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+Caenorhabditis+elegans+life+span+in+96+well+microtiter+plates.">Measuring Caenorhabditis elegans life span in 96 well microtiter plates.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 49, 2496 (2011).</li><li>Stiernagle, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintenance+of+C.+elegans.">Maintenance of C. elegans.</a> WormBook. , (2006).</li><li>Sutphin, G. L., Kaeberlein, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+Caenorhabditis+elegans+life+span+on+solid+media.">Measuring Caenorhabditis elegans life span on solid media.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (27), e1152 (2009).</li><li>Estes, K. A., Szumowski, S. C., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-lytic,+actin-based+exit+of+intracellular+parasites+from+C.+elegans+intestinal+cells.">Non-lytic, actin-based exit of intracellular parasites from C. elegans intestinal cells.</a> PLOS Pathogens. 7, 1002227 (2011).</li><li>Botts, M. R., Cohen, L. B., Probert, C. S., Wu, F., Troemel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microsporidia+intracellular+development+relies+on+myc+interaction+network+transcription+factors+in+the+host.">Microsporidia intracellular development relies on myc interaction network transcription factors in the host.</a> G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics. 6 (9), 2707-2716 (2016).</li><li>Corsi, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Transparent+window+into+biology:+A+primer+on+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">A Transparent window into biology: A primer on Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> WormBook. , 1-31 (2015).</li><li>Rivera, D. E., La&#382;eti&#263;, V., Troemel, E. R., Luallen, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNA+fluorescence+in+situ+hybridization+(FISH)+to+visualize+microbial+colonization+and+infection+in+the+Caenorhabditis+elegans+intestines.">RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to visualize microbial colonization and infection in the Caenorhabditis elegans intestines.</a> bioRxiv. , (2022).</li><li>Zhang, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+large+collection+of+novel+nematode-infecting+microsporidia+and+their+diverse+interactions+with+Caenorhabditis+elegans+and+other+related+nematodes.">A large collection of novel nematode-infecting microsporidia and their diverse interactions with Caenorhabditis elegans and other related nematodes.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 12, 1006093 (2016).</li><li>Luallen, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discovery+of+a+natural+microsporidian+pathogen+with+a+broad+tissue+tropism+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Discovery of a natural microsporidian pathogen with a broad tissue tropism in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 12, 1005724 (2016).</li><li>Troemel, E. R., F&#233;lix, M. -. A., Whiteman, N. K., Barri&#232;re, A., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microsporidia+are+natural+intracellular+parasites+of+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Microsporidia are natural intracellular parasites of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> PLoS Biology. 6, 309 (2008).</li><li>Burton, N. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intergenerational+adaptations+to+stress+are+evolutionarily+conserved,+stress-specific,+and+have+deleterious+trade-offs.">Intergenerational adaptations to stress are evolutionarily conserved, stress-specific, and have deleterious trade-offs.</a> eLife. 10, 73425 (2021).</li><li>Jaroenlak, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3-Dimensional+organization+and+dynamics+of+the+microsporidian+polar+tube+invasion+machinery.">3-Dimensional organization and dynamics of the microsporidian polar tube invasion machinery.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 16, 1008738 (2020).</li><li>Weidner, E., Manale, S. B., Halonen, S. K., Lynn, J. 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The present protocol describes the study of microsporidia and inherited immunity in a simple and genetically tractable N. parisii -C. elegans infection model.
Spore preparation is an intensive protocol that typically yields enough spores for 6 months of experiments, depending on productivity24. Importantly, infectivity must be determined for each new spore &#34;lot&#34; before using it for the experiments. Due to the variability in infectivity between ...

Inherited immunity is an epigenetic phenomenon whereby parental exposure to pathogens can enable the production of infection-resistant offspring. This type of immune memory has been shown in many invertebrates that lack adaptive immune systems and can protect against viral, bacterial, and fungal disease1. While inherited immunity has important implications for understanding both health and evolution, the molecular mechanisms underlying this protection are largely unknown. This is partly because many of the animals in which inherited immunity has been described are not established model organisms for research. In contrast, studies in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans benefit from an extensive genetic and biochemical toolkit2,3, a highly annotated genome4,5, and a short generation time. Indeed, research in C. elegans has enabled fundamental advances in the fields of epigenetics and innate immunity6,7, and it is now an established model for studying immune memory8,9.
Microsporidia are fungal pathogens that infect almost all animals and cause lethal infections in immunocompromised humans10. Infection begins when a microsporidia spore injects or &#34;fires&#34; its cellular contents (sporoplasm) into a host cell using a structure called a polar tube. Intracellular replication of the parasite results in the formation of meronts, which ultimately differentiate into mature spores that can exit the cell11,12. While these parasites are detrimental to both human health and food security, there is much still to learn about their infection biology12. Nematocida parisii is a natural microsporidian parasite that replicates exclusively in the intestinal cells of worms, resulting in reduced fecundity and, ultimately, death. The N. parisii -C. elegans infection model has been used to show: (1) the role of autophagy in pathogen clearance13, (2) how microsporidia can exit infected cells non-lytically14, (3) how pathogens can spread from cell-to-cell by forming syncytia15, (4) the proteins N. parisii use to interface with its host16, and (5) the regulation of the transcriptional intracellular pathogen response (IPR)17,18.
Protocols for the infection of C. elegans are described in the current work and can be used to reveal the unique microsporidia biology and dissect the host&#39;s response to infection. The microscopy of fixed worms stained with the chitin-binding dye Direct Yellow 96 (DY96) shows the infection spread of chitin-containing microsporidia spores throughout the intestine. DY96 staining also enables the visualization of chitin-containing worm embryos for the simultaneous assessment of worm gravidity (ability to produce embryos) as a readout of host fitness.
Recent work has revealed that C. elegans infected with N. parisii produce offspring that are robustly resistant to the same infection19. This inherited immunity lasts a single generation and is dose-dependent, as offspring from more heavily infected parents are more resistant to microsporidia. Interestingly, N. parisii-primed offspring are also more resistant to the bacterial gut pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, though they are not protected against the natural pathogen Orsay virus19. The present work also shows that immune-primed offspring limit host cell invasion by microsporidia. The method also describes the collection of immune-primed offspring and how FISH can be used to detect N. parisii RNA in intestinal cells to assay host cell invasion and spore firing20.
Together, these protocols provide a solid foundation for studying microsporidia and inherited immunity in C. elegans. It is hoped that future work in this model system will enable important discoveries in the nascent field of inherited immunity. These techniques are also likely to be starting points for investigating microsporidia-induced inherited immunity in other host organisms.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2.0 mm zirconia beads</td>
			<td>Biospec Products Inc.</td>
			<td>11079124ZX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL syringe</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>1482613</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 &#956;m filter</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SLSV025LS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axio Imager 2</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Fluorescent microscope for imaging of DY96- and FISH- stained worms on microscope slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axio Zoom V.16 Fluorescence Stereo Zoom Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>For live imaging of fluorescent transgenic animals to visualize the IPR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Baked EdgeGARD Horizontal Flow Clean Bench</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bead disruptor, Genie SI-D238 Analog Disruptor Genie Cell Disruptor, 120 V</td>
			<td>Global Industrial</td>
			<td>T9FB893150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell-VU slide, Millennium Sciences Disposable Sperm Count Cytometers</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>DRM600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Direct Yellow 96</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S472409-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EverBrite Mounting Medium with DAPI</td>
			<td>Biotium</td>
			<td>23001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EverBrite Mounting Medium without DAPI</td>
			<td>Biotium</td>
			<td>23002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiji/ImageJ software</td>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>https://imagej.net/software/fiji/downloads</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mechanical rotor</td>
			<td>Thermo Sceintific</td>
			<td>415110 / 1834090806873</td>
			<td>Used to spin tubes of bleached embryos for overnight hatching</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MicroB FISH probe</td>
			<td>Biosearch Technologies Inc.</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Synthesized with a Quasar 570 (Cy3) 5&#39; modification and HPLC purified, CTCTCGGCACTCCTTCCTG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N2</td>
			<td>Wild-type, Bristol strain</td>
			<td>Default strain</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center (CGC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L3771-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide solution (5 N)</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>FLSS256500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hypochlorite solution (6%)</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>SS290-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stemi 508 Stereo Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>For daily maintenance of worms and counting of L1 worms for assay set ups</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1379-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vectashield + A16</td>
			<td>Biolynx</td>
			<td>VECTH1500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying inherited immunity in a caenorhabditis elegans model of microsporidia infection

Inherited immunity describes how some animals can pass on the "memory" of a previous infection to their offspring. This can boost pathogen resistance in their progeny and promote survival. While inherited immunity has been reported in many invertebrates, the mechanisms underlying this epigenetic phenomenon are largely unknown. The infection of Caenorhabditis elegans by the natural microsporidian pathogen Nematocida parisii results in the worms producing offspring that are robustly resistant to microsporidia. The present protocol describes the study of intergenerational immunity in the simple and genetically tractable N. parisii -C. elegans infection model. The current article describes methods for infecting C. elegans and generating immune-primed offspring. Methods are also given for assaying resistance to microsporidia infection by staining for microsporidia and visualizing infection by microscopy. In particular, inherited immunity prevents host cell invasion by microsporidia, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can be used to quantify invasion events. The relative amount of microsporidia spores produced in the immune-primed offspring can be quantified by staining the spores with a chitin-binding dye. To date, these methods have shed light on the kinetics and pathogen specificity of inherited immunity, as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying it. These techniques, alongside the extensive tools available for C. elegans research, will enable important discoveries in the field of inherited immunity.

In the present study, parental populations of C. elegans (P0) were infected at the L1 stage with a low dose of N. parisii spores. These infection conditions are typically used to obtain high numbers of microsporidia-resistant F1 progeny through bleaching of the parents. Infected parental populations and uninfected controls were fixed at 72 hpi and stained with DY96 to visualize the worm embryos and microsporidia spores (Figure 1A). Infected animals are small, contain many m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Inherited Immunity in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model of Microsporidia Infection at JoVE.com

Studying Inherited Immunity in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model of Microsporidia Infection

The infection of Caenorhabditis elegans by the microsporidian parasite Nematocida parisii enables the worms to produce offspring that are highly resistant to the same pathogen. This is an example of inherited immunity, a poorly understood epigenetic phenomenon. The present protocol describes the study of inherited immunity in a genetically tractable worm&#160;model.

Studying Inherited Immunity in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model of Microsporidia Infection

Inherited immunity describes how some animals can pass on the "memory" of a previous infection to their offspring. This can boost pathogen resistance in ...

These protocols enable the study of inherited immunity to microsporidia. Techniques explained here can help us understand how immunity is transmitted across generations and the molecules determining immunity to microsporidia in offspring. C.elegans is a simple and genetically tractable model with a short generation time for assaying inheritance.The many tools available for the worm can be used to uncover molecular mechanisms of intergenerational immunity. When infecting P0 animals, use a low spore dose that does not significantly impact the parent's ability to produce progeny. This ensures that bleaching yields enough F1 animals for downstream experiments To begin, move the required number of 10-centimeter unseeded nematode growth medium plates from four degrees Celsius to room temperature one day before planned infections.Just before the infection, pellet down approximately 2, 500 synchronized L1 worms in a microfuge tube at 1, 400 times G for 30 seconds. Remove the supernatant with a pipette tip to leave worms in 50 microliters of M9 media. Add one milliliter of 10X Escherichia coli strain OP50 to the 1-stage worms, and N.parisii spores to the desired concentration.As an uninfected control, prepare an equivalent tube of L1s and OP50 with a volume of M9 media equivalent to the volume of spore preparation used. Mix the L1 worm sample by vortexing briefly and plate above one milliliter of worms onto a 10-centimeter unseeded nematode growth medium plate. Swirl to ensure the liquid spreads over the whole plate.Dry the plates in a clean cabinet with the lids off for 10 to 20 minutes or until completely dry before incubating at 21 degrees Celsius for 72 hours. At 72 hours post-infection, examine plates under the dissecting microscope. The plate with infected worms should contain fewer embryos than the plates with uninfected worms.Then wash the worms off the plates into a microcentrifuge tube using one milliliter M9 media. If many worms remain on the plates, pellet the worms by centrifugation at 1400 times G for 30 seconds. Remove the supernatant and perform additional plate washes.Centrifuge at 1400 times G for 30 seconds at room temperature to pellet the worms and wash twice with one milliliter of M9 media or until the supernatant is clear. Re-suspend it in a final volume of one milliliter M9 media and mix well by pipetting. Transfer 100 microliters of the suspended worms to a fresh tube and bleach the remaining 900 microliters to break open the adult worms and release F1 embryos for testing.Perform infections with modifications. as mentioned in the manuscript. At 72 hours post-infection, examine plates under a dissecting microscope.The plate with naive worms should be smaller and contain less embryos than the plates with primed worms. Then, start the staining and fixing process of worms by washing them off the plates into a microcentrifuge tube using one milliliter of 0.1%Tween 20 in M9 media. If many worms remain on the plates, pellet the worms by centrifugation at 1, 400 times G for 30 seconds at room temperature, remove the supernatant using a pipette tip, and perform additional plate washes.After pelleting the worms by centrifuging for 30 seconds at 1, 400 times G at room temperature, wash twice with one milliliters of M9 media containing 0.1%Tween 20 or until the supernatant is clear. Remove the supernatant, add 700 microliters of acetone, and leave the worms to fix at room temperature for 10 minutes. Pellet out these fixed worms for 30 seconds at 10, 000 times G at room temperature and give two washes of one milliliter phosphate buffer saline containing 0.1%Tween 20.Prepare 50 milliliters of DY96 working solution, wrap the container in foil, and store it in a drawer to prevent exposure to light. Add 500 microliters of DY96 working solution to the worm pellet and rotate for 30 minutes at room temperature in darkness. Centrifuge this reaction for 30 seconds at 10, 000 times G at room temperature to pellet the worms and remove the supernatant.Then, add 15 microliters of the mounting medium with or without DAPI. Pipette 10 microliters of these stained worms onto a microscope slide and place a cover slip over the top. To analyze the DY96-stained worms mounted on slides, perform imaging using the GFP channel of a fluorescence microscope.To determine the fitness of the worm populations, use a 5X or 10X objective to assay the gravidity of more than 100 worms per condition. At 72 hours post-infection, the F1 animals were fixed and stained with DY96 to assess microsporidia resistance. Infected parental populations and uninfected controls were fixed at 72 hours post-infection and stained with DY96 to visualize the worm embryos and microsporidia spores.Infected animals are small, contain many microsporidia spores, and produce fewer embryos than healthy, uninfected controls. Assessment of worm gravidity showed that approximately 95%of uninfected animals produced offspring, compared to the infected animals, which were less than 80%Quantifications revealed that approximately 90%of the microsporidia-treated population were infected, as determined by the number of worms containing DY96-stained spores. Quantifications of these fixed animals revealed that the primed worms contained significantly more embryos than their naive counterparts, indicating greater fitness in the face of infection.Fiji ImageJ was used to determine the parasite burden of individual naive and immune primed worms, which is the percentage of the body filled with fluorescent N.parisii spores. Quantifications revealed a dramatic reduction in the parasite burden of worms that came from infected parents. Further, the calculations of individual worm size revealed that primed worms had a significant growth advantage over naive animals in the face of N.parisii infection.Imaging studies revealed that while naive animals typically contained multiple spores and several infected cells, the primed animals had far fewer or no spores and typically no sporoplasms. If unprimed and primed F1 populations have similar numbers of gravid and infected animals, count the number of eggs per animal, and analyze infected tissue with ImageJ to find more subtle differences. While direct yellow 96 stains mature spores, fluorescence in situ hybridization can reveal sporoplasms within cells.This can show you the number of infected cells in primed and unprimed worms. These techniques have shown that the parental transcriptional response can be instrumental in inducing inherited immunity in offspring. Researchers are now investigating the nature of this immunity in offspring.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Trichuris muris Infection: A Model of Type 2 Immunity and Inflammation in the Gut

Trichuris muris is a natural pathogen of mice and is biologically and antigenically similar to species of Trichuris that 
infect humans and livestock1. Infective eggs are given by oral gavage, hatch in the distal small intestine, invade the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) 
that line the crypts of the cecum and proximal colon and upon maturation the worms release eggs into the environment1. This model is a powerful tool to 
examine factors that control CD4+ T helper (Th) cell activation as well as changes in the intestinal epithelium. The immune response that occurs in 
resistant inbred strains, such as C57BL/6 and BALB/c, is characterized by Th2 polarized cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) and expulsion of worms while Th1-associated 
cytokines (IL-12, IL-18, IFN-&gamma;) promote chronic infections in genetically susceptible AKR/J mice2-6. Th2 cytokines promote physiological changes in 
the intestinal microenvironment including rapid turnover of IECs, goblet cell differentiation, recruitment and changes in epithelial permeability and smooth muscle 
contraction, all of which have been implicated in worm expulsion7-15. Here we detail a protocol for propagating Trichuris muris eggs which can 
be used in subsequent experiments. We also provide a sample experimental harvest with suggestions for post-infection analysis. Overall, this protocol will provide 
researchers with the basic tools to perform a Trichuris muris mouse infection model which can be used to address questions pertaining to Th proclivity in 
the gastrointestinal tract as well as immune effector functions of IECs.

Trichuris muris Infection: A Model of Type 2 Immunity and Inflammation in the Gut

Trichuris muris infection is an intestinal model of Th2 immunity where resistant mice generate a protective Th2 response and susceptible mice generate a pathological Th1 response.

Trichuris muris is a natural pathogen of mice and is biologically and antigenically similar to species of Trichuris that 
infect humans and livestock1. ...

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the disease, is characterised by an accumulation of Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells (iRBC) at pigmented trophozoite stage in the microvasculature of the brain2-4. This microvessel obstruction (sequestration) leads to acidosis, hypoxia and harmful inflammatory cytokines (reviewed in 5). Sequestration is also found in most microvascular tissues of the human body2, 3. The mechanism by which iRBC attach to the blood vessel walls is still poorly understood.
The immortalized Human Brain microvascular Endothelial Cell line (HBEC-5i) has been used as an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier6. However, Plasmodium falciparum iRBC attach only poorly to HBEC-5i in vitro, unlike the dense sequestration that occurs in cerebral malaria cases. We therefore developed a panning assay to select (enrich) various P. falciparum strains for adhesion to HBEC-5i in order to obtain populations of high-binding parasites, more representative of what occurs in vivo.
A sample of a parasite culture (mixture of iRBC and uninfected RBC) at the pigmented trophozoite stage is washed and incubated on a layer of HBEC-5i grown on a Petri dish. After incubation, the dish is gently washed free from uRBC and unbound iRBC. Fresh uRBC are added to the few iRBC attached to HBEC-5i and incubated overnight. As schizont stage parasites burst, merozoites reinvade RBC and these ring stage parasites are harvested the following day. Parasites are cultured until enough material is obtained (typically 2 to 4 weeks) and a new round of selection can be performed. Depending on the P. falciparum strain, 4 to 7 rounds of selection are needed in order to get a population where most parasites bind to HBEC-5i. The binding phenotype is progressively lost after a few weeks, indicating a switch in variant surface antigen gene expression, thus regular selection on HBEC-5i is required to maintain the phenotype.
In summary, we developed a selection assay rendering P. falciparum parasites a more "cerebral malaria adhesive" phenotype. We were able to select 3 out of 4 P. falciparum strains on HBEC-5i. This assay has also successfully been used to select parasites for binding to human dermal and pulmonary endothelial cells. Importantly, this method can be used to select tissue-specific parasite populations in order to identify candidate parasite ligands for binding to brain endothelium. Moreover, this assay can be used to screen for putative anti-sequestration drugs7.

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

An in vitro model for cerebral malaria sequestration is described1. Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells are selected for binding to immortalized human brain microvascular endothelial cells. The selected parasites show a distinct phenotype. The selection process can be applied using various P. falciparum strains and endothelial cell lines.

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the ...

A Flow Adhesion Assay to Study Leucocyte Recruitment to Human Hepatic Sinusoidal Endothelium Under Conditions of Shear Stress

Leucocyte infiltration into human liver tissue is a common process in all adult inflammatory liver diseases. Chronic infiltration can drive the development of fibrosis and progression to cirrhosis. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that mediate leucocyte recruitment to the liver could identify important therapeutic targets for liver disease. The key interaction during leucocyte recruitment is that of inflammatory cells with endothelium under conditions of shear stress. Recruitment to the liver occurs within the low shear channels of the hepatic sinusoids which are lined by hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells (HSEC). The conditions within the hepatic sinusoids can be recapitulated by perfusing leucocytes through channels lined by human HSEC monolayers at specific flow rates. In these conditions leucocytes undergo a brief tethering step followed by activation and firm adhesion, followed by a crawling step and subsequent transmigration across the endothelial layer. Using phase contrast microscopy, each step of this &#39;adhesion cascade&#39; can be visualized and recorded followed by offline analysis. Endothelial cells or leucocytes can be pretreated with inhibitors to determine the role of specific molecules during this process.

Leucocyte recruitment to the liver occurs within the specialized channels of the hepatic sinusoids which are lined by unique hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells. Phase contrast microscopy of leucocyte recruitment across human hepatic sinusoidal endothelium under conditions of physiological shear stress can facilitate the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms which underlie this process.

Leucocyte infiltration into human liver tissue is a common process in all adult inflammatory liver diseases. Chronic infiltration can drive the ...

A Protocol to Infect Caenorhabditis elegans with Salmonella typhimurium

In the last decade, C. elegans has emerged as an invertebrate organism to study interactions between hosts and pathogens, including the host defense against gram-negative bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. Salmonella establishes persistent infection in the intestine of C. elegans and results in early death of infected animals. A number of immunity mechanisms have been identified in C. elegans to defend against Salmonella infections. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved lysosomal degradation pathway, has been shown to limit the Salmonella replication in C. elegans and in mammals. Here, a protocol is described to infect C. elegans with Salmonella typhimurium, in which the worms are exposed to Salmonella for a limited time, similar to Salmonella infection in humans. Salmonella infection significantly shortens the lifespan of C. elegans. Using the essential autophagy gene bec-1 as an example, we combined this infection method with C. elegans RNAi feeding approach and showed this protocol can be used to examine the function of C. elegans host genes in defense against Salmonella infection. Since C. elegans whole genome RNAi libraries are available, this protocol makes it possible to comprehensively screen for C. elegans genes that protect against Salmonella and other intestinal pathogens using genome-wide RNAi libraries.

A Protocol to Infect Caenorhabditis elegans with Salmonella typhimurium

C. elegans has emerged as a new genetic model to study host-pathogen interactions. Here we describe a protocol to infect C. elegans with Salmonella typhimurium coupled with the double-strand RNAi interference technique to examine the role of host genes in defense against Salmonella infection.

In the last decade, C. elegans has emerged as an invertebrate organism to study interactions between hosts and pathogens, including the host defense ...

Neutrophil Isolation and Analysis to Determine their Role in Lymphoma Cell Sensitivity to Therapeutic Agents

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of inflammation. They are key players in the innate immune system and play major roles in cancer biology. Neutrophils have been proposed as key mediators of malignant transformation, tumor progression, angiogenesis and in the modulation of the antitumor immunity; through their release of soluble factors or their interaction with tumor cells. To characterize the specific functions of neutrophils, a fast and reliable method is coveted for in vitro isolation of neutrophils from human blood. Here, a density gradient separation method is demonstrated to isolate neutrophils as well as mononuclear cells from the blood. The procedure consists of layering the density gradient solution such as Ficoll carefully above the diluted blood obtained from patients diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), followed by centrifugation, isolation of mononuclear layer, separation of neutrophils from RBCsby dextran then lysis of residual erythrocytes. This method has been shown to isolate neutrophils &#8805; 90 % pure. To mimic the tumor microenvironment, 3-dimensional (3D) experiments were performed using basement membrane matrix such as Matrigel. Given the short half-life of neutrophils in vitro, 3D experiments with fresh human neutrophils cannot be performed. For this reason promyelocytic HL60 cells are differentiated along the granulocytic pathway using the differentiation inducers dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and retinoic acid (RA). The aim of our experiments is to study the role of neutrophils on the sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents. However these methods can be generalized to study the interactions of neutrophils or neutrophil-like cells with a large range of cell types in different situations.

Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells. The isolation of neutrophils from human blood by density gradient separation method and the differentiation of human promyelocytic (HL60) cells along the granulocytic pathway are described here; to test their role on sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents.

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of ...

Bioluminescence Imaging to Detect Late Stage Infection of African Trypanosomiasis

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a multi-stage disease that manifests in two stages; an early blood stage and a late stage when the parasite invades the central nervous system (CNS). In vivo study of the late stage has been limited as traditional methodologies require the removal of the brain to determine the presence of the parasites.
Bioluminescence imaging is a non-invasive, highly sensitive form of optical imaging that enables the visualization of a luciferase-transfected pathogen in real-time. By using a transfected trypanosome strain that has the ability to produce late stage disease in mice we are able to study the kinetics of a CNS infection in a single animal throughout the course of infection, as well as observe the movement and dissemination of a systemic infection.
Here we describe a robust protocol to study CNS infections using a bioluminescence model of African trypanosomiasis, providing real time non-invasive observations which can be further analyzed with optional downstream approaches.

This manuscript describes the use of a bioluminescent strain of African trypanosomes to enable the tracking of late stage infection and demonstrates how in vivo live imaging can be used to visualize infections within the central nervous system in real-time.

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a multi-stage disease that manifests in two stages; an early blood stage and a late stage when the parasite invades ...

Applying Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to Examine Effector Translocation Efficiency by Coxiella burnetii during siRNA Silencing

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is an intracellular pathogen that relies on a Type IV Dot/Icm Secretion System to establish a replicative niche. A cohort of effectors are translocated through this system into the host cell to manipulate host processes and allow the establishment of a unique lysosome-derived vacuole for replication. The method presented here involves the combination of two well-established techniques: specific gene silencing using siRNA and measurement of effector translocation using a FRET-based substrate that relies on &#946;-lactamase activity. Applying these two approaches, we can begin to understand the role of host factors in bacterial secretion system function and effector translocation. In this study we examined the role of Rab5A and Rab7A, both important regulators of the endocytic trafficking pathway. We demonstrate that silencing the expression of either protein results in a decrease in effector translocation efficiency. These methods can be easily modified to examine other intracellular and extracellular pathogens that also utilize secretion systems. In this way, a global picture of host factors involved in bacterial effector translocation may be revealed.

Applying Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer FRET to Examine Effector Translocation Efficiency by Coxiella burnetii during siRNA Silencing

Investigating the interactions between bacterial pathogens and their hosts is an important area of biological research. Here, we describe the necessary techniques to measure effector translocation by Coxiella burnetii during siRNA gene silencing using BlaM substrate.

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is an intracellular pathogen that relies on a Type IV Dot/Icm Secretion System to establish a ...

Mouse Models Of Helicobacter Infection And Gastric Pathologies

Helicobacter pylori is a gastric pathogen that is present in half of the global population and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in humans. Several mouse models of gastric Helicobacter infection have been developed to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms whereby H. pylori bacteria colonize the stomach of human hosts and cause disease. Herein, we describe protocols to: 1) prepare bacterial suspensions for the in vivo infection of mice via intragastric gavage; 2) determine bacterial colonization levels in mouse gastric tissues, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and viable counting; and 3) assess pathological changes, by histology. To establish Helicobacter infection in mice, specific pathogen-free (SPF) animals are first inoculated with suspensions (containing &#8805;105 colony-forming units, CFUs) of mouse-colonizing strains of either Helicobacter pylori or other gastric Helicobacter spp. from animals, such as Helicobacter felis. At the appropriate time-points post-infection, stomachs are excised and dissected sagittally into two equal tissue fragments, each comprising the antrum and body regions. One of these fragments is then used for either viable counting or DNA extraction, while the other is subjected to histological processing. Bacterial colonization and histopathological changes in the stomach may be assessed routinely in gastric tissue sections stained with Warthin-Starry, Giemsa or Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&#38;E) stains, as appropriate. Additional immunological analyses may also be undertaken by immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence on mouse gastric tissue sections. The protocols described below are specifically designed to enable the assessment in mice of gastric pathologies resembling those in human-related H. pylori diseases, including inflammation, gland atrophy and lymphoid follicle formation. The inoculum preparation and intragastric gavage protocols may also be adapted to study the pathogenesis of other enteric human pathogens that colonize mice, such as Salmonella Typhimurium or Citrobacter rodentium.

Mouse Models Of Helicobacter Infection And Gastric Pathologies

Mice represent an invaluable in vivo model to study infection and diseases caused by gastrointestinal microorganisms. Here, we describe the methods used to study bacterial colonization and histopathological changes in mouse models of Helicobacter pylori-related disease.

Helicobacter pylori is a gastric pathogen that is present in half of the global population and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in ...

Evaluating Virulence and Pathogenesis of Aeromonas Infection in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model

The human pathogen Aeromonas has been clinically shown to cause gastroenteritis, wound infections, septicemia, and urinary tract infections. Most human diseases have been reported to be associated with four species of bacteria: Aeromonas dhakensis, Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas veronii, and Aeromonas caviae. The model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is a bacterivore that provides an excellent infection model by which to study the bacterial pathogenesis of Aeromonas. Here, we introduce three different experiments to study Aeromonas infection using a C. elegans model, including survival, liquid toxicity, and muscle necrosis assays. The results of the three methods determining the virulence of Aeromonas were consistent. A. dhakensis was shown to be the most toxic among the 4 major Aeromonas species causing clinical infections. These methods are shown to be a convenient way to evaluate the toxicity among and within Aeromonas species and contribute to our understanding of the pathogenesis of Aeromonas infection.

Evaluating Virulence and Pathogenesis of Aeromonas Infection in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model

Here, we introduce three different experiments to study Aeromonas infection in C. elegans. Using these convenient methods, it is easy to evaluate the toxicity among and within Aeromonas species.

The human pathogen Aeromonas has been clinically shown to cause gastroenteritis, wound infections, septicemia, and urinary tract infections. Most human ...

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, Candida can overgrow their natural niches resulting in debilitating mucosal infections as well as life-threatening systemic infections, which are a major focus of investigation due to their associated high mortality rates. Animal models of disseminated infection exist for studying disease progression and dissecting the characteristics of Candida pathogenicity. Of these, the Galleria mellonella waxworm infection model provides a cost-effective experimental tool for high-throughput investigations of systemic virulence. Many other bacterial and eukaryotic infectious agents have been effectively studied in G. mellonella to understand pathogenicity, making it a widely accepted model system. Yet, variation in the method used to infect G. mellonella can alter phenotypic outcomes and complicate interpretation of the results. Here, we outline the benefits and drawbacks of the waxworm model to study systemic Candida pathogenesis and detail an approach to improve reproducibility. Our results highlight the range of mortality kinetics in G. mellonella and describe the variables which can modulate these kinetics. Ultimately, this method stands as an ethical, rapid, and cost-effective approach to study virulence in a model of disseminated candidiasis.

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Galleria mellonella serves as an invertebrate model for disseminated candidiasis. Here, we detail the infection protocol and provide supporting data for the model&#39;s effectiveness.

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, ...