We thank Kristen Kwan for the pCS2-H2A.F/Z-EGFP and pCS2-mCherry-CAAX vectors. We thank Chris Rodesch for tutoring us in live imaging in zebrafish. We thank Shawn Williams, Erik Malarkey and Brad Yoder for assistance in confocal imaging at UAB and the High Resolution Imaging Facility at UAB. The High Resolution Imaging Facility is supported by the UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center Support Grant (P30CA013148) and the Rheumatic Disease Core Center (P30 AR048311). J.M.P. is supported by the National Institute of Neurological Disease and Stroke (NIH R21 NS092105), and pilot grants from American Cancer Society (ACS IRG-60-001-53-IRG) and the UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center (P30CA013148). S.M.P. is supported by the Cell and Molecular Biology T32 Training Grant (5T32GM008111-28).

1. In Vitro Transcription
<ol>
	<li>Linearize pCS2-H2A.F/Z-EGFP and/or pCS2-mCherry-CAAX vectors by NotI restriction enzyme digest31. Using an RNA in vitro transcription kit, generate 5&#39; capped mRNA products from each template, according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.</li>
	<li>Purify the capped mRNA using a purification kit. Follow manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Elute with RNase-free H2O.</li>
	<li>Determine the concentration of RNA by absorbance at 260 nm using a spectrophotometer. (OD260 x dilution x 40 &#181;g/ml).</li>
	<li>Dilute the RNA to 100 ng/&#181;l for each H2A.F/Z-EGFP and mCherry-CAAX with RNase-free H2O. If the RNA concentration is too low, the fluorescence will be diminished or absent. Brighter samples will diminish the concerns over phototoxicity and photobleaching. On the other hand, too much RNA can be toxic and/or cause off target effects. 
	Note: Store the remaining purified mRNA in -80 &#176;C freezer.</li>
</ol>
2. Zebrafish Breeding, Embryo Collection, and mRNA Injection 36-38
<ol>
	<li>Assemble breeding tanks with a barrier to separate the tank into two regions and fill each breeding tank with aquaculture system water used in the zebrafish facility.</li>
	<li>In order to prevent untimely breeding, place two male fish on one side of the barrier and two female fish on the other side the night before breeding.</li>
	<li>The next day, thaw the previously prepared mRNA mixture on ice. Replace the water in breeding tanks with fresh aquaculture system water and remove the barriers. Immediately after the barriers are pulled, warm an injection mold to 28.5 &#176;C and set up the equipment for microinjection. 
	Note: For information on injection molds, please refer to Gerlach36.</li>
	<li>Collect eggs every 10 - 15 min using a tea strainer and rinse the eggs into a clean 100 x 15 mm Petri dish with E3 Blue (5 mM NaCl, 0.17 mM KCl, 0.33 mM CaCl2, 0.33 mM MgSO4, 10-5% Methylene blue). E3 Blue is used to prevent fungal growth and ensure proper development of larval fish. For more information on mating and embryo collection, refer to Gerlach36 and Porazinkski37.</li>
	<li>Embed one-cell staged embryos in a warmed injection mold and inject the RNA into the yolk in the desired amount of embryos (Figure 1A). Account for natural embryonic death and unfertilized embryos by performing embryonic injections on 15% more embryos than needed for the experiment. For additional details on microinjection of zebrafish embryos, please refer to Gerlach36 and Porazinkski37. 
	NOTE: For first time use of mRNA, perform a dose-curve analysis to determine the optimal dose for fluorescence and viability (defined as no gross developmental defects up to 5 dpf) prior to performing 5D imaging. 150 - 200 ng/&#181;l injected into embryos is often the optimal concentration, therefore it is a good starting point for the final concentration.</li>
	<li>Carefully extract the injected embryos from the mold using a modified 9&#34; glass Pasteur pipette. To modify the pipette, melt the end using a Bunsen burner until it forms a ball.</li>
	<li>Place injected embryos in a 100 x 15 mm Petri dish in E3 Blue and house in a 28.5 &#176;C incubator.</li>
	<li>Six hr post-injection, remove any dead or unfertilized embryos from the plates and add clean E3 Blue. House the embryos at 28.5 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation and Embedding of Live Zebrafish Embryos for Imaging (Figure 1B)
<ol>
	<li>Two hr before imaging, screen the injected embryos for GFP using a fluorescent dissecting microscope. Place bright green GFP-expressing embryos in a new 100 x 15 mm Petri dish with E3 Blue.</li>
	<li>Boil a stock solution of 1% low melt agarose by adding 1 g of low melt agarose to 100 ml of E3 Blue. After using the agarose, cover the flask with aluminum foil. The stock solution remains useful for up to one month.</li>
	<li>Aliquot 3 ml of the melted agar into a 17 x 100 mm culture tube. Keep the agarose warm by placing the culture tube in a 42 &#176;C water bath until ready for use. Prepare a 15 mM Tricaine solution in deionized water to anesthetize the zebrafish embryos36. 
	NOTE: If imaging at earlier time points is desired, the concentration of agar can be decreased as low as 0.3%39.</li>
	<li>Bring the 15 mM Tricaine, screened embryos, low melt agarose, E3 Blue, and a 35 mm glass coverslip bottom culture dish to a dissection light microscope. Carefully remove the embryo&#39;s chorion with #5 tweezers. Do this for three embryos.</li>
	<li>Place the dechorionated embryos in a separate container to be anesthetized. The lid of the coverslip bottom dish is often used for this purpose. Using a transfer pipette, add three drops (approximately 150 &#181;l) of 15 mM Tricaine to the dish of 5 ml E3 blue (if using the lid of the coverslip bottom dish) or until embryos have been sufficiently anesthetized. In addition, add 3-4 drops (approximately 150 - 200 &#181;l) of 15 mM Tricaine solution to the 1% melted agarose tube.</li>
	<li>Using a p200 pipette with 1 cm of the pipette tip cut off; transfer the anesthetized embryos to the coverslip-bottomed dish. Remove any excess E3 Blue:Tricaine solution.</li>
	<li>Slowly add 5 - 10 &#181;l of low-melt agarose:Tricaine solution over the embryos, keeping each drop separate to ensure the embryos do not accidentally drift close to one another. 
	Warning: If the agarose is too warm, it will damage the embryo. A good temperature to maintain the agar at is 42 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Using a 21 G 1 &#189; needle, gently orient the embryo in the agarose to the desired position. When using an inverted microscope for time-lapse imaging, orient the region of interest (ROI) as close to the coverslip as possible. 
	Note: For general purposes, the tail region offers ease of orientation and clarity due to the relatively thin tissue (Figure 1A). Other tissues, such as the epithelial layer surrounding the yolk and fin folds, can be used28,29. These tissues offer great clarity, however these regions are only a few cell layers thick. For the purpose of this protocol, it is beneficial to image the tail region to acquire as many cell divisions as possible.</li>
	<li>Allow a few min for partial solidification of the agar. Use the needle to break apart a small piece of agar to test its solidification. When a piece of agar can be pulled away from the drop, proceed to the next step.</li>
	<li>Cover the entire coverslip with low melt agar forming a dome over the embedded embryos. Allow the agar to solidify before moving the dish for confocal imaging (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>During the agar solidification process (takes approximately 10 min), prepare 3 ml of E3 Blue solution with five drops of (approximately 250 &#181;l) 15 mM Tricaine to be placed over the embedded embryos during imaging.</li>
</ol>
4. 5D Confocal Imaging of Live Zebrafish Embryos40,41
NOTE: See Ariga40 and O&#39;Brien41 for details on how to perform 5D imaging using other confocal systems. For Z-interval, Z-stack, Z-depth, time interval, and 5D definitions see Figure 1C.
<ol>
	<li>Open the imaging software and set the microscope to 60X NA 1.4 objective lens. Apply immersion oil to the objective lens and place the culture dish in the slide holder on the microscope stage. Using the axis controller, center the embryo of interest above the objective lens and bring the objective lens upward to meet the culture dish.</li>
	<li>Click on the eye piece icon and switch to the GFP filter on the microscope. Focus on the ROI. Focusing on the tissue closest to the coverslip will offer the best imaging results.</li>
	<li>Remove the interlock. Select the GFP and mCherry channels (pre-set wavelengths in software) and set the line averaging option to normal.</li>
	<li>Use &#34;View/Acquisition Controls/A1 Scan Area&#34; command to open the A1 Scan Area tool.</li>
	<li>Begin scanning. Using the axis-controller, position the embryo so that the scan area is filled with as much of the zebrafish as possible. The laser power does not need to be optimal at this point. Lower the laser power to avoid unnecessary photobleaching.</li>
	<li>Use the &#34;View/Acquisition Controls/ND acquisition&#34; command to open the ND acquisition control panel.</li>
	<li>Begin scanning to set the Z-stack parameters. Set the Z-stack upper limit to where the cells are not in focus and lower limit to where cells are no longer visible. Allow for a 3 &#181;m space above the sample for growth and cell movement, which may expand into the imaging field. The Z-stack for the figures shown in this protocol covered a Z-depth of 40 &#181;m in the embryo tail.</li>
	<li>Set the Z-interval step size to 2 &#181;m. On average, a cell is 10 &#181;m in diameter; therefore 2 &#181;m will produce five intervals of imaging data to be analyzed for each cell. 
	NOTE: The depth of the image that can be acquired depends on the Z interval. Z resolution is sacrificed to gain overall depth in the Z dimension in order to image as many cells undergoing mitosis as possible (large Z-depth). The inverse is true, in that, by decreasing the step size, Z resolution is gained, while Z depth is sacrificed (small Z-depth).</li>
	<li>Adjust the image laser power, HV, and offset levels. For the experiments demonstrated in this protocol, use the following laser power, HV, and offset levels set at the corresponding levels, respectively, for the GFP channel; 2 - 5, 120 - 140, and -9 to -11. For the mCherry channel, use the following laser power, HV, and offset levels, respectively; 3 - 6, 120 - 140, and -3 to -8. Once the parameters are set, shut off the scan to prevent unnecessary laser exposure that may cause phototoxicity and photobleaching of the sample.</li>
	<li>Select the 2x line averaging icon. &#34;No averaging&#34; produces a grainy image while &#34;4x line averaging&#34; drastically increases the scan time. Use of 2x line averaging provides the best image quality and fastest scan time.</li>
	<li>Select the appropriate time interval and time duration necessary for the experiment. For wild-type divisions, two-minute time intervals for 2 hr is best for determining mitotic duration (used in Figures 1, 2, 3A, and 3B). Divisions that activate the spindle assembly checkpoint for longer than 30 min are more suitable for five minute intervals for four hr in order to preserve fluorescence as demonstrated in Figure 3C.</li>
	<li>Check the &#34;save to file&#34; box and name the file to automatically save the file as it is being acquired. Double check all parameters are set correctly and hit &#34;start run&#34;.</li>
	<li>After acquisition is complete, to view the file in a three dimensional format, click on the volume threshold icon.</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Use of this method allows one to infer nuclear envelope breakdown, formation of a metaphase plate by microtubule-kinetochore attachments, and segregation of sister chromatids to form two new cells in vivo and in a time-dependent manner. The ability to observe mitosis in zebrafish is advantageous over fixed samples and cell culture systems because the cells are being imaged in the natural physiology, the tissue is transparent which allows for fluorescent proteins to be used, they develop relatively fast, and time...

Mitosis is a critical cellular process essential for growth, differentiation, and regeneration in a living organism. Upon accurate preparation and replication of DNA in interphase, the cell is primed to divide. The first phase of mitosis, prophase, is initiated by activation of cyclin B/Cdk1. Prophase is characterized by condensation of chromatin material into chromosomes. Nuclear envelope breakdown occurs at the transition between prophase and prometaphase. In prometaphase, centrosomes, the nucleating center for spindle formation, begin to migrate to opposite poles while extending microtubules in search of kinetochore attachment. Upon attachment, conversions to end-on microtubule attachment and tension forces orient the chromosomes forming a metaphase plate1. If all chromosomes are attached correctly, the spindle assembly checkpoint is satisfied, cohesin rings holding the sister chromatids together are cleaved, and microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids to opposite poles during anaphase2,3. The final phase, telophase, involves elongation of the cell and reformation of the nuclear envelope around the two new nuclei. Cytokinesis completes the division process by separating the cytoplasm of the two new daughter cells4-6. Alteration of key mitotic pathways (i.e., spindle assembly checkpoint, centrosome duplication, sister chromatid cohesion, etc.) can result in metaphase arrest, missegregation of chromosomes, and genomic instability7-10. Ultimately, defects in pathways controlling mitosis can cause developmental disorders and cancer, necessitating visualization of mitosis and its defects in a live, vertebrate, multi-cellular organism10-16.
Zebrafish embryos serve as a great model organism for live imaging due to the transparent tissue, ease of microinjection, and fast development. Using zebrafish, the overall goal of this manuscript is to describe a method of live 5D (dimensions X, Y, Z, time, and wavelength) imaging of mitosis17 (Figure 1C). The use of mutant zebrafish defective in different mitotic pathways demonstrate the consequence of such defects. For this protocol, Aurora B and Esco2 mutants were chosen to illustrate these defects. Aurora B is a kinase that is part of the chromosome passenger complex (CPC) involved in spindle formation and microtubule attachment. It is also required for cleavage furrow formation in cytokinesis18,19. In zebrafish, Aurora B deficiency leads to defects in furrow induction, cytokinesis, and chromosome segregation20. Esco2, on the other hand, is an acetyltransferase that is essential for sister chromatid cohesion21,22. It acetylates cohesin on the SMC3 portion of the ring thus stabilizing cohesin to ensure proper chromosome segregation at the metaphase-anaphase transition23. Loss of Esco2 in zebrafish leads to chromosome missegregation, premature sister chromatid separation, genomic instability, and p53-dependent and independent apoptosis24,25. Due to the availability, auroraBhi1045, and esco2hi2865 mutant zebrafish (hereafter referred to as aurBm/m and esco2m/m, respectively) will be used to illustrate this technique25-27.
Coupling confocal microscopy with fluorescent-tagged cell machinery has enabled researchers to visualize chromatin and cell membrane dynamics during mitosis25,28,29. Fluorescent-tagged histones have historically been used to visualize chromatin. Histones are nuclear proteins composed of four different pairs (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) that are responsible for the nucleosome structure that composes chromosomes30. While H2B is arguably the most used histone for fluorescent proteins in mouse and cell culture, use of Histone 2A, Family Z (H2A.F/Z) has proved well for use in zebrafish31,32. Concanavalin A and casein kinase 1-gamma for example, localize to the cell membrane and have previously been shown effective in visualizing the cell membrane in sea urchins and drosophila33,34. Other studies have shown that the CAAX fluorescent-tagged protein labels the cell membrane and was successful in zebrafish31. CAAX is a motif that is recognized by post-translational modifying enzymes such as farnesyltransferases and geranylgeranyltransferases. Modifications by these enzymes cause proteins to become membrane-associated, thus labeling the cell membrane35.
Due to the prior use in zebrafish, this protocol chose to use H2A.F/Z and CAAX to label chromatin and the cell membrane. Application of this method will allow the researcher to monitor mitosis at the individual cell level to observe individual chromosome dynamics, as well as simultaneously monitor multiple cell divisions that may impact tissue differentiation and development. This article will focus on imaging the dynamics of chromosome segregation during mitosis at the individual cell level. Within this manuscript, the ability to observe several mitotic divisions, calculate division time, and decipher the mitotic phenotypes will be illustrated and discussed. By using these parameters, physiologically relevant data can be collected and applied to several disease states affected by mitotic defects.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1094">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">pCS2 vectors</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Gift from K. Kwan</td>
			<td style="width:129px;"></td>
			<td style="width:460px;">For plasmid of interest</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">NotI-HF restriction enzyme</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>R3189S</td>
			<td>For restriction digest of plasmid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">mMessage SP6 kit</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>AM1340</td>
			<td>For in vitro transcription</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">RNeasy Mini kit</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">74104</td>
			<td style="width:460px;">For purifying mRNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">100 x 15 mm petri dishes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">FB0875712</td>
			<td>For housing embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">microinjection mold</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">homemade</td>
			<td style="width:129px;"></td>
			<td>For holding embryos during microinjection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Agarose II</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Amresco</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">0815-25G</td>
			<td>For embedding embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Tricaine</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E10521-10G</td>
			<td>For anesthetizing embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:331px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">S9888</td>
			<td>For embryo water (E3 Blue), dissolved in UltraPure H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:331px;">Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">P3911</td>
			<td>For embryo water (E3 Blue), dissolved in UltraPure H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:331px;">Calcium Chloride Dihydrate</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">C8106</td>
			<td>For embryo water (E3 Blue), dissolved in UltraPure H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:331px;">Magnesium Sulfate</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">M7506</td>
			<td>For embryo water (E3 Blue), dissolved in UltraPure H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:331px;">Methylene Blue Hydrate</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">MB1</td>
			<td>For embryo water (E3 Blue), dissolved in UltraPure H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">100 mm culture tube</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-819-812</td>
			<td>For melted agar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">35 mm glass coverslip bottom culture dish&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">MatTek Corp</td>
			<td>P35G-0-20-C&#160;</td>
			<td>No. 0, 20 mm glass, For embedding embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">#5 tweezers</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Dumont</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">72701-D</td>
			<td>For dechorionating embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">21G 1 1/2 gauge needle&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">305167</td>
			<td>For positioning embryos in agar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Dissecting microscope</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Nikon AZ100</td>
			<td style="width:129px;"></td>
			<td>For screening and embedding embryos, any dissecting scope will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Confocal microscope</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Nikon A1+</td>
			<td style="width:129px;"></td>
			<td>For time-lapse imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Confocal software</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">NIS Elements AR 4.13.00</td>
			<td style="width:129px;"></td>
			<td>For image acquisition and processing</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

observing mitotic division and dynamics in a live zebrafish embryo

Mitosis is critical for organismal growth and differentiation. The process is highly dynamic and requires ordered events to accomplish proper chromatin condensation, microtubule-kinetochore attachment, chromosome segregation, and cytokinesis in a small time frame. Errors in the delicate process can result in human disease, including birth defects and cancer. Traditional approaches investigating human mitotic disease states often rely on cell culture systems, which lack the natural physiology and developmental/tissue-specific context advantageous when studying human disease. This protocol overcomes many obstacles by providing a way to visualize, with high resolution, chromosome dynamics in a vertebrate system, the zebrafish. This protocol will detail an approach that can be used to obtain dynamic images of dividing cells, which include: in vitro transcription, zebrafish breeding/collecting, embryo embedding, and time-lapse imaging. Optimization and modifications of this protocol are also explored. Using H2A.F/Z-EGFP (labels chromatin) and mCherry-CAAX (labels cell membrane) mRNA-injected embryos, mitosis in AB wild-type, auroraBhi1045, and esco2hi2865 mutant zebrafish is visualized. High resolution live imaging in zebrafish allows one to observe multiple mitoses to statistically quantify mitotic defects and timing of mitotic progression. In addition, observation of qualitative aspects that define improper mitotic processes (i.e., congression defects, missegregation of chromosomes, etc.) and improper chromosomal outcomes (i.e., aneuploidy, polyploidy, micronuclei, etc.) are observed. This assay can be applied to the observation of tissue differentiation/development and is amenable to the use of mutant zebrafish and pharmacological agents. Visualization of how defects in mitosis lead to cancer and developmental disorders will greatly enhance understanding of the pathogenesis of disease.

Figure 2 demonstrates the ability to observe many cell divisions using a wide field view of an AB wild-type zebrafish tail. Over seven mitotic cells are imaged in a 14 min time frame (Movie 1). Within the two hr time-course, over 40 mitotic events were captured. On average, 50 dividing cells were observed in the AB and 30 dividing cells in aurBm/m embryos (Figure 2B). To account for the number of cells imaged,...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Observing Mitotic Division and Dynamics in a Live Zebrafish Embryo at JoVE.com

Observing Mitotic Division and Dynamics in a Live Zebrafish Embryo

Mitosis is critical to every living organism and defects often lead to cancer and developmental disorders. Using this imaging protocol and zebrafish as a model system, researchers can visualize mitosis in a live vertebrate organism and the multitude of defects that arise when mitotic processes are defective.

Mitosis is critical for organismal growth and differentiation. The process is highly dynamic and requires ordered events to accomplish proper chromatin ...

observing-mitotic-division-and-dynamics-in-a-live-zebrafish-embryo

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11.9K Views.  University of Alabama at Birmingham. Mitosis is critical to every living organism and defects often lead to cancer and developmental disorders. Using this imaging protocol and zebrafish as a model system, researchers can visualize mitosis in a live vertebrate organism and the multitude of defects that arise when mitotic processes are defective.

Video: Observing Mitotic Division and Dynamics in a Live Zebrafish Embryo

Kidney Regeneration in Adult Zebrafish by Gentamicin Induced Injury

The kidney is essential for fluid homeostasis, blood pressure regulation and filtration of waste from the body. The fundamental unit of kidney function is the nephron. Mammals are able to repair existing nephrons after injury, but lose the ability to form new nephrons soon after birth. In contrast to mammals, adult fish produce new nephrons (neonephrogenesis) throughout their lives in response to growth requirements or injury. Recently, lhx1a has been shown to mark nephron progenitor cells in the adult zebrafish kidney, however mechanisms controlling the formation of new nephrons after injury remain unknown. Here we show our method for robust and reproducible injury in the adult zebrafish kidney by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of gentamicin, which uses a noninvasive visual screening process to select for fish with strong but nonlethal injury. Using this method, we can determine optimal gentamicin dosages for injury and go on to demonstrate the effect of higher temperatures on kidney regeneration in zebrafish.

Here we present a reliable method to study adult kidney regeneration by inducing acute kidney injury by gentamicin injection. We show that injury is dependent on gentamicin dosage and environmental temperature using in situ hybridization to label lhx1a+ developing new nephrons.

The kidney is essential for fluid homeostasis, blood pressure regulation and filtration of waste from the body. The fundamental unit of kidney function is ...

Microbead Implantation in the Zebrafish Embryo

The zebrafish has emerged as a valuable genetic model system for the study of developmental biology and disease. Zebrafish share a high degree of genomic conservation, as well as similarities in cellular, molecular, and physiological processes, with other vertebrates including humans. During early ontogeny, zebrafish embryos are optically transparent, allowing researchers to visualize the dynamics of organogenesis using a simple stereomicroscope. Microbead implantation is a method that enables tissue manipulation through the alteration of factors in local environments. This allows researchers to assay the effects of any number of signaling molecules of interest, such as secreted peptides, at specific spatial and temporal points within the developing embryo. Here, we detail a protocol for how to manipulate and implant beads during early zebrafish development.

The zebrafish is an excellent model system for genetic and developmental studies. Bead implantation is a valuable tissue manipulation technique that can be used to interrogate developmental mechanisms by introducing alterations in local cellular environments. This protocol describes how to perform microbead implantation in the zebrafish embryo.

The zebrafish has emerged as a valuable genetic model system for the study of developmental biology and disease. Zebrafish share a high degree of genomic ...

Imaging Subcellular Structures in the Living Zebrafish Embryo

In vivo imaging provides unprecedented access to the dynamic behavior of cellular and subcellular structures in their natural context. Performing such imaging experiments in higher vertebrates such as mammals generally requires surgical access to the system under study. The optical accessibility of embryonic and larval zebrafish allows such invasive procedures to be circumvented and permits imaging in the intact organism. Indeed the zebrafish is now a well-established model to visualize dynamic cellular behaviors using in vivo microscopy in a wide range of developmental contexts from proliferation to migration and differentiation. A more recent development is the increasing use of zebrafish to study subcellular events including mitochondrial trafficking and centrosome dynamics. The relative ease with which these subcellular structures can be genetically labeled by fluorescent proteins and the use of light microscopy techniques to image them is transforming the zebrafish into an in vivo model of cell biology. Here we describe methods to generate genetic constructs that fluorescently label organelles, highlighting mitochondria and centrosomes as specific examples. We use the bipartite Gal4-UAS system in multiple configurations to restrict expression to specific cell-types and provide protocols to generate transiently expressing and stable transgenic fish. Finally, we provide guidelines for choosing light microscopy methods that are most suitable for imaging subcellular dynamics.

Imaging the dynamic behavior of organelles and other subcellular structures in vivo can shed light on their function in physiological and disease conditions. Here, we present methods for genetically tagging two organelles, centrosomes and mitochondria, and imaging their dynamics in living zebrafish embryos using wide-field and confocal microscopy.

In vivo imaging provides unprecedented access to the dynamic behavior of cellular and subcellular structures in their natural context. Performing such ...

Biosensing Motor Neuron Membrane Potential in Live Zebrafish Embryos

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the cells are located. Specifically, they have been developed to analyze the electrical activity of excitable cells, such as spinal neurons. In such a scenario, it is crucial to preserve the integrity of the spinal cell, but it is also important to preserve the anatomy and physiological shape of the systems involved. Indeed, the comprehension of the manner in which the nervous system-and other complex systems-works must be based on a systemic approach. For this reason, the live zebrafish embryo was chosen as a model system, and the spinal neuron membrane voltage changes were evaluated without interfering with the physiological conditions of the embryos. 
Here, an approach combining the employment of zebrafish embryos with a FRET-based biosensor is described. Zebrafish embryos are characterized by a very simplified nervous system and are particularly suited for imaging applications thanks to their transparency, allowing for the employment of fluorescence-based voltage indicators at the plasma membrane during zebrafish development. The synergy between these two components makes it possible to analyze the electrical activity of the cells in intact living organisms, without perturbing the physiological state. Finally, this non-invasive approach can co-exist with other analyses (e.g., spontaneous movement recordings, as shown here).

Protocols described here allow for the study of the electrical properties of excitable cells in the most non-invasive physiological conditions by employing zebrafish embryos in an in vivo system together with a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) selectively expressed in the cell type of interest.

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the ...

Use of Immunolabeling to Analyze Stable, Dynamic, and Nascent Microtubules in the Zebrafish Embryo

Microtubules (MTs) are dynamic and fragile structures that are challenging to image in vivo, particularly in vertebrate embryos. Immunolabeling methods are described here to analyze distinct populations of MTs in the developing neural tube of the zebrafish embryo. While the focus is on neural tissue, this methodology is broadly applicable to other tissues. The procedures are optimized for early to mid-somitogenesis-stage embryos (1 somite to 12 somites), however they can be adapted to a range of other stages with relatively minor adjustments. The first protocol provides a method to assess the spatial distribution of stable and dynamic MTs and perform a quantitative analysis of these populations with image-processing software. This approach complements existing tools to image microtubule dynamics and distribution in real-time, using transgenic lines or transient expression of tagged constructs. Indeed, such tools are very useful, however they do not readily distinguish between dynamic and stable MTs. The ability to image and analyze these distinct microtubule populations has important implications for understanding mechanisms underlying cell polarization and morphogenesis. The second protocol outlines a technique to analyze nascent MTs specifically. This is accomplished by capturing the de novo growth properties of MTs over time, following microtubule depolymerization with the drug nocodazole and a recovery period after drug washout. This technique has not yet been applied to the study of MTs in zebrafish embryos, but is a valuable assay for investigating the in vivo function of proteins implicated in microtubule assembly.

Immunolabeling methods to analyze distinct populations of microtubules in the developing zebrafish brain are described here, which are broadly applicable to other tissues. The first protocol outlines an optimized method for immunolabeling stable and dynamic microtubules. The second protocol provides a method to image and quantify nascent microtubules specifically.

Microtubules (MTs) are dynamic and fragile structures that are challenging to image in vivo, particularly in vertebrate embryos. Immunolabeling methods ...

In Vitro Ovule Cultivation for Live-cell Imaging of Zygote Polarization and Embryo Patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana

In most flowering plants, the zygote and embryo are hidden deep in the mother tissue, and thus it has long been a mystery of how they develop dynamically; for example, how the zygote polarizes to establish the body axis and how the embryo specifies various cell fates during organ formation. This manuscript describes an in vitro ovule culture method to perform live-cell imaging of developing zygotes and embryos of Arabidopsis thaliana. The optimized cultivation medium allows zygotes or early embryos to grow into fertile plants. By combining it with a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) micropillar array device, the ovule is held in the liquid medium in the same position. This fixation is crucial to observe the same ovule under a microscope for several days from the zygotic division to the late embryo stage. The resulting live-cell imaging can be used to monitor the real-time dynamics of zygote polarization, such as nuclear migration and cytoskeleton rearrangement, and also the cell division timing and cell fate specification during embryo patterning. Furthermore, this ovule cultivation system can be combined with inhibitor treatments to analyze the effects of various factors on embryo development, and with optical manipulations such as laser disruption to examine the role of cell-cell communication.

In Vitro Ovule Cultivation for Live-cell Imaging of Zygote Polarization and Embryo Patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana

This manuscript describes an in vitro ovule cultivation method that enables live-cell imaging of Arabidopsis zygotes and embryos. This method is utilized to visualize the intracellular dynamics during zygote polarization and the cell fate specification in developing embryos.

In most flowering plants, the zygote and embryo are hidden deep in the mother tissue, and thus it has long been a mystery of how they develop dynamically; ...

AFM and Microrheology in the Zebrafish Embryo Yolk Cell

Elucidating the factors that direct the spatio-temporal organization of evolving tissues is one of the primary purposes in the study of development. Various propositions claim to have been important contributions to the understanding of the mechanical properties of cells and tissues in their spatiotemporal organization in different developmental and morphogenetic processes. However, due to the lack of reliable and accessible tools to measure material properties and tensional parameters in vivo, validating these hypotheses has been difficult. Here we present methods employing atomic force microscopy (AFM) and particle tracking with the aim of quantifying the mechanical properties of the intact zebrafish embryo yolk cell during epiboly. Epiboly is an early conserved developmental process whose study is facilitated by the transparency of the embryo. These methods are simple to implement, reliable, and widely applicable since they overcome intrusive interventions that could affect tissue mechanics. A simple strategy was applied for the mounting of specimens, AFM recording, and nanoparticle injections and tracking. This approach makes these methods easily adaptable to other developmental times or organisms.

The lack of tools to measure material properties and tensional parameters in vivo prevents validating their roles during development. We employed atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nanoparticle-tracking to quantify mechanical features on the intact zebrafish embryo yolk cell during epiboly. These methods are reliable and widely applicable avoiding intrusive interventions.

Elucidating the factors that direct the spatio-temporal organization of evolving tissues is one of the primary purposes in the study of development. ...

Culture and Transfection of Zebrafish Primary Cells

Zebrafish embryos are transparent and develop rapidly outside the mother, thus allowing for excellent in vivo imaging of dynamic biological processes in an intact and developing vertebrate. However, the detailed imaging of the morphologies of distinct cell types and subcellular structures is limited in whole mounts. Therefore, we established an efficient and easy-to-use protocol to culture live primary cells from zebrafish embryos and adult tissue.
In brief, 2 dpf zebrafish embryos are dechorionated, deyolked, sterilized, and dissociated to single cells with collagenase. After a filtration step, primary cells are plated onto glass bottom dishes and cultivated for several days. Fresh cultures, as much as long term differenciated ones, can be used for high resolution confocal imaging studies. The culture contains different cell types, with striated myocytes and neurons being prominent on poly-L-lysine coating. To specifically label subcellular structures by fluorescent marker proteins, we also established an electroporation protocol which allows the transfection of plasmid DNA into different cell types, including neurons. Thus, in the presence of operator defined stimuli, complex cell behavior, and intracellular dynamics of primary zebrafish cells can be assessed with high spatial and temporal resolution. In addition, by using adult zebrafish brain, we demonstrate that the described dissociation technique, as well as the basic culturing conditions, also work for adult zebrafish tissue.

We present an efficient and easy-to-use protocol for preparing primary cell cultures of zebrafish embryos for transfection and live cell imaging as well as a protocol to prepare primary cells from adult zebrafish brain.

Zebrafish embryos are transparent and develop rapidly outside the mother, thus allowing for excellent in vivo imaging of dynamic biological processes in ...

Live Imaging and Analysis of Muscle Contractions in Drosophila Embryo

Coordinated muscle contractions are a form of rhythmic behavior seen early during development in Drosophila embryos. Neuronal sensory feedback circuits are required to control this behavior. Failure to produce the rhythmic pattern of contractions can be indicative of neurological abnormalities. We previously found that defects in protein O-mannosylation, a posttranslational protein modification, affect the axon morphology of sensory neurons and result in abnormal coordinated muscle contractions in embryos. Here, we present a relatively simple method for recording and analyzing the pattern of peristaltic muscle contractions by live imaging of late stage embryos up to the point of hatching, which we used to characterize the muscle contraction phenotype of protein O-mannosyltransferase mutants. Data obtained from these recordings can be used to analyze muscle contraction waves, including frequency, direction of propagation and relative amplitude of muscle contractions at different body segments. We have also examined body posture and taken advantage of a fluorescent marker expressed specifically in muscles to accurately determine the position of the embryo midline. A similar approach can also be utilized to study various other behaviors during development, such as embryo rolling and hatching.

Live Imaging and Analysis of Muscle Contractions in Drosophila Embryo

Here, we present a method to record embryonic muscle contractions in Drosophila embryos in a non-invasive and detail-oriented manner.

Coordinated muscle contractions are a form of rhythmic behavior seen early during development in Drosophila embryos. Neuronal sensory feedback circuits ...

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with development, tissue homeostasis, and disease processes. Drosophila spermatocytes undergoing meiosis are ideal for this analysis because (1) whole Drosophila testes containing spermatocytes are relatively easy to prepare for microscopy, (2) the spermatocytes&#8217; large size makes them well suited for high resolution imaging, and (3) powerful Drosophila genetic tools can be integrated with in vivo analysis. Here, we present a readily accessible protocol for the preparation of whole testes from Drosophila third instar larvae and early pupae. We describe how to identify meiotic spermatocytes in prepared whole testes and how to image them live by time-lapse microscopy. Protocols for fixation and immunostaining whole testes are also provided. The use of larval testes has several advantages over available protocols that use adult testes for spermatocyte analysis. Most importantly, larval testes are smaller and less crowded with cells than adult testes, and this greatly facilitates high resolution imaging of spermatocytes. To demonstrate these advantages and the applications of the protocols, we present results showing the redistribution of the endoplasmic reticulum with respect to spindle microtubules during cell division in a single spermatocyte imaged by time-lapse confocal microscopy. The protocols can be combined with expression of any number of fluorescently tagged proteins or organelle markers, as well as gene mutations and other genetic tools, making this approach especially powerful for analysis of cell division mechanisms in the physiological context of whole tissues and organs.

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

The goal of this protocol is to analyze cell division in intact tissue by live and fixed cell microscopy using Drosophila meiotic spermatocytes. The protocol demonstrates how to isolate whole, intact testes from Drosophila larvae and early pupae, and how to process and mount them for microscopy.

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with ...