Name: using 22c3 anti-pd-l1 antibody concentrate on biopsy and cytology samples from non-small cell lung cancer patients
Uploaded: 2018-09-25T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using 22C3 Anti-PD-L1 Antibody Concentrate on Biopsy and Cytology Samples from Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Patients at JoVE.com

This study was sponsored by Merck &#38; Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA. The funders played no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

All procedures have been approved by the local ethics committee (Human Research Ethics Committee, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice/Tumoroth&#232;que BB-0033-00025).
NOTE: This protocol is specifically adjusted for the use of the 22C3 antibody concentrate on a commercially available automated IHC stainer (referred to as autostainer here, see the Table of Materials) for tumor biopsies and cytology samples.
1. Preparation of Tumor Tissue Samples<...

<ol>
	<li>Garon, E. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pembrolizumab+for+the+treatment+of+non-small-cell+lung+cancer.">Pembrolizumab for the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer.</a> The New England Journal of Medicine. 372 (21), 2018-2028 (2015).</li><li>Herbst, R. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pembrolizumab+versus+docetaxel+for+previously+treated,+PD-L1-positive,+advanced+non-small-cell+lung+cancer+(KEYNOTE-010):+a+randomised+controlled+trial.">Pembrolizumab versus docetaxel for previously treated, PD-L1-positive, advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (KEYNOTE-010): a randomised controlled trial.</a> The Lancet. 387 (10027), 1540-1550 (2016).</li><li>Reck, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pembrolizumab+versus+Chemotherapy+for+PD-L1-Positive+Non-Small-Cell+Lung+Cancer.">Pembrolizumab versus Chemotherapy for PD-L1-Positive Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer.</a> The New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (19), 1823-1833 (2016).</li><li>Langer, C. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carboplatin+and+pemetrexed+with+or+without+pembrolizumab+for+advanced,+non-squamous+non-small-cell+lung+cancer:+a+randomised,+phase+2+cohort+of+the+open-label+KEYNOTE-021+study.">Carboplatin and pemetrexed with or without pembrolizumab for advanced, non-squamous non-small-cell lung cancer: a randomised, phase 2 cohort of the open-label KEYNOTE-021 study.</a> The Lancet Oncology. 17 (11), 1497-1508 (2016).</li><li>Buttner, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Programmed+Death-Ligand+1+Immunohistochemistry+Testing:+A+Review+of+Analytical+Assays+and+Clinical+Implementation+in+Non-Small-Cell+Lung+Cancer.">Programmed Death-Ligand 1 Immunohistochemistry Testing: A Review of Analytical Assays and Clinical Implementation in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer.</a> Journal of Clinical Oncology. 35 (34), 3867-3876 (2017).</li><li>Folch, E., Costa, D. B., Wright, J., VanderLaan, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+cancer+diagnosis+and+staging+in+the+minimally+invasive+age+with+increasing+demands+for+tissue+analysis.">Lung cancer diagnosis and staging in the minimally invasive age with increasing demands for tissue analysis.</a> Translational Lung Cancer Research. 4 (4), 392-403 (2015).</li><li>Padmanabhan, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+Adequacy+of+Small+Biopsy+and+Fine-Needle+Aspiration+Specimens+for+Molecular+Testing+by+Next-Generation+Sequencing+in+Patients+With+Lung+Cancer:+A+Quality+Improvement+Study+at+Dartmouth-Hitchcock+Medical+Center.">Improving Adequacy of Small Biopsy and Fine-Needle Aspiration Specimens for Molecular Testing by Next-Generation Sequencing in Patients With Lung Cancer: A Quality Improvement Study at Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center.</a> Archives of Pathology &amp; Laboratory Medicine. 141 (3), 402-409 (2017).</li><li>Tsao, M. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> IASLC ATLAS of PD-L1 Immunohistochemistry Testing in Lung Cancer. , (2017).</li><li>Thunnissen, E., de Langen, A. J., Smit, E. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PD-L1+IHC+in+NSCLC+with+a+global+and+methodological+perspective.">PD-L1 IHC in NSCLC with a global and methodological perspective.</a> Lung Cancer. , 102-105 (2017).</li><li>Ilie, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+22C3+anti-PD-L1+antibody+to+determine+PD-L1+expression+in+multiple+automated+immunohistochemistry+platforms.">Use of the 22C3 anti-PD-L1 antibody to determine PD-L1 expression in multiple automated immunohistochemistry platforms.</a> PLoS One. 12 (8), e0183023 (2017).</li><li>Ilie, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+22C3+anti-programmed+death+ligand+1+antibody+to+determine+programmed+death+ligand+1+expression+in+cytology+samples+obtained+from+non-small+cell+lung+cancer+patients.">Use of the 22C3 anti-programmed death ligand 1 antibody to determine programmed death ligand 1 expression in cytology samples obtained from non-small cell lung cancer patients.</a> Cancer Cytopathology. 126 (4), 264-274 (2018).</li><li>Skov, B. G., Skov, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Paired+Comparison+of+PD-L1+Expression+on+Cytologic+and+Histologic+Specimens+From+Malignancies+in+the+Lung+Assessed+With+PD-L1+IHC+28-8pharmDx+and+PD-L1+IHC+22C3pharmDx.">Paired Comparison of PD-L1 Expression on Cytologic and Histologic Specimens From Malignancies in the Lung Assessed With PD-L1 IHC 28-8pharmDx and PD-L1 IHC 22C3pharmDx.</a> Applied Immunohistochemistry &amp; Molecular Morphology. 25 (7), 453-459 (2017).</li><li>Russell-Goldman, E., Kravets, S., Dahlberg, S. E., Sholl, L. M., Vivero, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytologic-histologic+correlation+of+programmed+death-ligand+1+immunohistochemistry+in+lung+carcinomas.">Cytologic-histologic correlation of programmed death-ligand 1 immunohistochemistry in lung carcinomas.</a> Cancer Cytopathology. 126 (4), 253-263 (2018).</li><li>Heymann, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PD-L1+expression+in+non-small+cell+lung+carcinoma:+Comparison+among+cytology,+small+biopsy,+and+surgical+resection+specimens.">PD-L1 expression in non-small cell lung carcinoma: Comparison among cytology, small biopsy, and surgical resection specimens.</a> Cancer Cytopathology. 125 (12), 896-907 (2017).</li><li>Stoy, S. P., Rosen, L., Mueller, J., Murgu, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Programmed+death-ligand+1+testing+of+lung+cancer+cytology+specimens+obtained+with+bronchoscopy.">Programmed death-ligand 1 testing of lung cancer cytology specimens obtained with bronchoscopy.</a> Cancer Cytopathology. 126 (2), 122-128 (2018).</li><li>Ilie, M., Hofman, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reproducibility+of+PD-L1+assessment+in+non-small+cell+lung+cancer-know+your+limits+but+never+stop+trying+to+exceed+them.">Reproducibility of PD-L1 assessment in non-small cell lung cancer-know your limits but never stop trying to exceed them.</a> Translational Lung Cancer Research. 6 (Suppl 1), S51-S54 (2017).</li></ol>

We have validated an optimized LDT using the 22C3 PD-L1 antibody concentrate, by comparing it with the corresponding clinically validated commercial test10,11. The 22C3 concentrated antibody-based LDT showed a high concordance rate between biopsy (~100%) and cytology (~95%) specimens when compared to the PD-L1 IHC expression determined using the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 assay at both &#8805;1% TPS and the &#8805;50% TPS cut points. As recently recommended by the Internatio...

Recent clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of pembrolizumab, a humanized monoclonal IgG4 kappa isotype antibody that blocks the interaction between programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2, in the treatment of patients with advanced NSCLC1,2,3,4.
Currently, pembrolizumab is approved for treatment of PD-L1-expressing NSCLC in both treatment-naive patients with a PD-L1 expression TPS of &#8805;50% and no epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) genomic tumor aberrations3 and for previously treated patients with a PD-L1 TPS of &#8805;1%1.
PD-L1 protein expression detected by IHC has been widely used as a predictive biomarker assay for anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapies. In pembrolizumab clinical trials, the PD-L1 TPS obtained with formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples was determined using the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 companion assay5. This assay has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has been CE-marked in Europe for the determination of the tumor PD-L1 TPS5.
Additional global options across institutions for reliable and high-quality evaluations of the PD-L1 TPS with LDTs which use the 22C3 antibody concentrate are essential to support clinical decisions made regarding patient eligibility for pembrolizumab treatment. A large number of pathology laboratories do not have access to the companion diagnostic PD-L1 IHC 22C3 assay. Therefore, the development of reliable and consistent LDTs compatible with additional, widely available IHC autostainer platforms is essential.
Moreover, there is a need to establish LDTs using cytology samples that are the only specimen type frequently available from NSCLC patients. The PD-L1 IHC 22C3 companion assay is validated for resections, core needle biopsies, and bronchoscopies only if the bronchoscopy yields 100 tumor cells. Although the above sample types are frequently obtained, cytology samples are more easily collected and are the most commonly available sample type in some institutions6,7. However, there is currently no validated diagnostic assay available for the evaluation of the PD-L1 expression in cytology samples; reliable LDTs compatible with cytology samples would further facilitate high-quality PD-L1 testing.
Furthermore, when establishing the clinical validation of an LDT, the IHC should be performed in a similar way to the corresponding clinically validated commercial test8. For instance, several critical steps should be verified to obtain the same signal in serial sections such as antibody titration, pretreatment delays, incubation time, and amplification systems9.
We recently developed an optimized LDT that uses the 22C3 antibody concentrate to evaluate the PD-L1 expression on tumor biopsies and cytology samples10,11. We found a high concordance with the LDT versus the &#34;gold standard&#34; PD-L1 IHC 22C3 assay10,11. This clinically validated protocol will support reliable, high-quality PD-L1 testing across regions globally.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>NovaPrep HQ1</td>
			<td>Novacyt</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Preservative solution for cytology specimens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Novaprep&#174; HQ+ B</td>
			<td>Novacyt</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Mucolytic solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek VIP 6</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>6042 VIP 6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek TEC 5 Tissue Embedding Console System</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>5229 TEC 5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microscope glass slide SuperFrost Plus</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>4951PLUS4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-Dithiothreitol powder</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D3801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heidolph Multi Reax Vortex Shaker</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-889-410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shandon Cytoblock</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>7401150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>22C3 anti-PD-L1 concentrate antibody</td>
			<td>Agilent Dako</td>
			<td>#M365329</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PD-L1 IHC 22C3 pharmDx</td>
			<td>Agilent Dako</td>
			<td>SK006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autostainer Link 48</td>
			<td>Agilent Dako</td>
			<td>AS480</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BenchMark ULTRA autostainer</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#750-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView HQ Universal Linker</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView HRP Multimer</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView Amplification H2O2</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-099</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView Amplifier</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-099</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView Amplification Multimer</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView DAB</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiView Copper</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin II</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#790-2208</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bluing Reagent</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#760-2037</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Conditioning 1 (CC1)</td>
			<td>Ventana</td>
			<td>#950-124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek Film Coverslipper</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4742</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using 22c3 anti-pd-l1 antibody concentrate on biopsy and cytology samples from non-small cell lung cancer patients

Pembrolizumab monotherapy has been approved for the first- and second-line treatment of patients with PD-L1-expressing advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Testing for PD-L1 expression with the PD-L1 immunohistochemistry (IHC) 22C3 companion diagnostic assay, which gives a tumor proportion score (TPS), has been validated on tumor tissue. We developed an optimized laboratory-developed test (LDT) that uses the 22C3 antibody (Ab) concentrate on a widely available IHC autostainer for biopsy and cytology specimens. The PD-L1 TPS was evaluated with 120 paired whole-tumor tissue sections and biopsy samples and with 70 paired biopsy and cytology samples (bronchial washes, n = 40; pleural effusions, n = 30). The 22C3 Ab concentrate-based LDT showed a high concordance rate between biopsy (~100%) and cytology (~95%) specimens when compared to PD-L1 IHC expression determined using the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 companion assay at both TPS cut points (&#8805;1%, &#8805;50%). The optimized LDT presented here, using the 22C3 Ab concentrate to determine the PD-L1 expression in both tumor tissue and in cytology specimens, will expand the ability of laboratories worldwide to assess the eligibility of patients with NSCLC for treatment with pembrolizumab monotherapy in a reliable and reproducible manner.

Using the procedure presented here, and as described in detail in this group&#39;s recent publications10,11, the optimized LDT was clinically validated with 120 archival FFPE NSCLC biopsy samples from patients who underwent surgical resection or a biopsy at the Pasteur University Hospital, Nice, between March 2007 and March 2016. Moreover, for the evaluation of PD-L1 expression of cytology samples, TPS was evaluated in 70 paired t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using 22C3 Anti-PD-L1 Antibody Concentrate on Biopsy and Cytology Samples from Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Patients at JoVE.com

Using 22C3 Anti-PD-L1 Antibody Concentrate on Biopsy and Cytology Samples from Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Patients

To expand the ability of laboratories worldwide to assess the eligibility of patients with lung cancer for treatment with pembrolizumab, in a reliable and reproducible manner, we developed an assay that uses the 22C3 antibody concentrate on a widely available immunohistochemical autostainer, for both biopsy and cytology specimens.

Pembrolizumab monotherapy has been approved for the first- and second-line treatment of patients with PD-L1-expressing advanced non-small cell lung cancer ...

This method using the 22C3 antibody concentrate to determine PD-L1 expression in both tumor tissue and cytology specimen will expand the ability of laboratories to assess selection of patients with non-small cell lung cancer for immunotherapy in a reliable and reproducible manner. The main advantage of this technique is that it's highly concordant with the gold standard assay and will support reliable, high-quality PD-L1 testing across regions worldwide. In general, pathologists new to this method will struggle because of the granular staining occasionally observed.Moreover, the staining of the human cells is somewhat more intense than that observed with the gold standard. Therefore training of pathologists is necessary to obtain correct interpretation of PD-L1 staining with the 22C3 LDT. Demonstrating the procedure will be Mrs.Marame Hamila, a technician from my lab. To begin, fix the tumor tissue in 10%neutral-buffered formalin in a cassette and embed the cassette in paraffin as outlined in the text protocol. Embed the infiltrated tissue inside a mold that is filled with molten paraffin.Let the tissue stay in the mold until the paraffin has solidified. After this, use a microtome to section the paraffin-embedded tissue at a thickness of three micrometers. Transfer the paraffin ribbon to a positively-charged glass microscope slide.Then, dry the slide for one hour at 37 degrees Celsius. First, collect the bronchial washings in a preservative solution. Transfer the washings to a 50-milliliter conical tube.Add two grams of DL-Dithiothreitol and vortex the tube for 30 minutes, then centrifuge at 250 times g for five minutes at room temperature. Remove the supernatant and add 10 milliliters of a mucolytic solution. Shake the sample at medium speed for 20 minutes and centrifuge at 250 times g for five minutes at room temperature.After this, remove the supernatant and deposit the cell pellet into a collection tube containing 10%neutral-buffered formalin. Add four drops of a cell block preparation agent. Transfer the cell pellet to a cassette.Fix the cell pellet for paraffin embedding and sectioning using the process previously described for preparing tumor tissue samples. To begin, power on the autostainer and the computer. Double click on the autostainer icon and choose the user.Click on Create Label and then on Protocol. Double click on the 22C3 protocol. Fill in the patient's ID and click Print.After this, stick the label onto the slide. Press the button on the chosen slide drawer to open it and place the labeled slide on the thermal pad with the label facing upwards and inwards. Close the slide drawer.Next, remove the caps from the dispensers. Load the reagents on the reagents rack. Open the hood of the stainer and place the reagent racks on the reagents carousel, making sure that they fit properly and hold in position, then close the hood.In the software, click on the instrument that will be used and then click Running. At the end of the IHC procedure, use tap water with a single drop of cleaning solution to rinse the slide for several seconds. Dehydrate the slide by immersing it sequentially in two ethanol baths for several seconds each, then place the slide into a coverslipping machine to automatically load the cover slip.To begin assessing the quality of the PD-L1 staining, analyze the positive and negative controls before examining the patient specimen. Using a microscope, confirm the presence of at least 100 viable tumor cells. At a low magnification of 4 times, evaluate all well-preserved positive and negative tumor areas.After this, score partial or complete cell membrane staining and calculate the tumor proportion score by assessing the proportion of PD-L1-positive tumor cells relative to all tumor cells present in the well-preserved tumor areas. In this study, the tumor proportion score or TPS is evaluated for paired-tissue biopsy samples in cells blocks prepared from bronchial washes or pleural effusions. Representative staining patterns with biopsy specimens are used to compare the 22C3-antibody concentrate against the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 companion assay.The intraclass correlation coefficient, which is used to measure the correlation of the TPS score as a continuous variable, is 99%between the LDT and the gold standard. Representative staining patterns with cytology specimens are also used to compare the 22C3-antibody concentrate against the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 companion assay. The concordance rate of biopsy and cytology samples with the LDT is greater than 95%when using either of the TPS cut points.The intraclass correlation coefficient while using TPS as a continuous variable is between 0.88 and 0.90. Once mastered, this technique gives a high concordance rate with the gold standard in evaluate the cutoff for positivity or tumor histology for both tissue and cytology specimens. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that the samples must be evaluated with reference to the HE slide and in some difficult cases complementary stains to assess immune cells may be performed to exclude misinterpretation of the PD-L1 expression in tumor cells only.Following this procedure, other specimens like fine-needle biopsies, EUS-FNAs or bronchial brushes can be evaluated. After its setting in the clinics, the assay robustness needs to be maintained over time by seeking for accreditation, by following standard operating procedures, and by regularly participating in external quality assessment schemes. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to implement the optimized protocol using the 22C3 anti-PD-L1 antibody concentrate on a widely available IHC autostainer both biopsy and cytology samples from patients with non-small cell lung cancer.

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Research

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Cancer Research

Lung Tumor Cell Recruitment Assay

To investigate the molecular mechanisms governing tumor metastasis, various assays using the mouse as a model animal have been proposed. Here, we demonstrate a simple assay to evaluate tumor cell extravasation or micrometastasis. In this assay, tumor cells were injected through the tail vein, and after a short period, the lungs were dissected and digested to count the accumulated labeled tumor cells. This assay skips the initial step of primary tumor invasion into the blood vessel and facilitates the study of events in the distant organ where tumor metastasis occurs. The number of cells injected into the blood vessel can be optimized to observe a limited number of metastases. It has been reported that stromal cells in the distant organ contribute to metastasis. Thus, this assay could be a useful tool to explore potential therapeutic drugs or devices for prevention of tumor metastasis.

This manuscript describes a method to quantify tumor cell accumulation in the lungs in an animal model of tumor metastasis.

To investigate the molecular mechanisms governing tumor metastasis, various assays using the mouse as a model animal have been proposed. Here, we ...

MicroRNA Based Liquid Biopsy: The Experience of the Plasma miRNA Signature Classifier (MSC) for Lung Cancer Screening

The development of a minimally invasive test, such as liquid biopsy, for early lung cancer detection in its preclinical phase is crucial to improve the outcome of this deadly disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are tissue specific, small, non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression, which may act as extracellular messengers of biological signals derived from the cross-talk between the tumor and its surrounding microenvironment. They could thus represent ideal candidates for early detection of lung cancer. In this work, a methodological workflow for the prospective validation of a circulating miRNA test using custom made microfluidic cards and quantitative Real-Time PCR in plasma samples of volunteers enrolled in a lung cancer screening trial is proposed. In addition, since the release of hemolysis-related miRNAs and more general technical issues may affect the analysis, the quality control steps included in the standard operating procedures are also presented. The protocol is reproducible and gives reliable quantitative results; however, when using large clinical series, both pre-analytical and analytical features should be cautiously evaluated.

MicroRNA Based Liquid Biopsy: The Experience of the Plasma miRNA Signature Classifier MSC for Lung Cancer Screening

Here, we present the detailed protocol adopted in the BioMILD screening trial to perform the circulating microRNA signature classifier test for early lung cancer detection.

The development of a minimally invasive test, such as liquid biopsy, for early lung cancer detection in its preclinical phase is crucial to improve the ...

Simple and Rapid Method to Obtain High-quality Tumor DNA from Clinical-pathological Specimens Using Touch Imprint Cytology

It is critical to determine the mutational status in cancer before administration and treatment of specific molecular targeted drugs for cancer patients. In the clinical setting, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues are widely used for genetic testing. However, FFPE DNA is generally damaged and fragmented during the fixation process with formalin. Therefore, FFPE DNA is sometimes not adequate for genetic testing because of low quality and quantity of DNA. Here we present a method of touch imprint cytology (TIC) to obtain genomic DNA from cancer cells, which can be observed under a microscope. Cell morphology and cancer cell numbers can be evaluated using TIC specimens. Furthermore, the extraction of genomic DNA from TIC samples can be completed within two days. The total amount and quality of TIC DNA obtained using this method was higher than that of FFPE DNA. This rapid and simple method allows researchers to obtain high-quality DNA for genetic testing (e.g., next generation sequencing analysis, digital PCR, and quantitative real time PCR) and to shorten the turnaround time for reporting results.

Obtaining high-quality genomic DNA from tumor tissues is an essential first step for analyzing genetic alterations using next generation sequencing. In this article, we present a simple and rapid method to enrich tumor cells and obtain intact DNA from touch imprint cytology specimens.

It is critical to determine the mutational status in cancer before administration and treatment of specific molecular targeted drugs for cancer patients. ...

Elastic Staining on Paraffin-embedded Slides of pT3N0M0 Gastric Cancer Tissue

The elastic lamina, which is usually located in the sub-mesothelial layer, adjacent to the peritoneum mesothelial cells, is amphiphilic on hematoxylin and eosin (H&amp;E) staining but can be visualized through elastic staining. One of the important benefits of elastic staining is that it makes it easy to determine whether tumor cells have invaded beyond the elastic lamina. This helps in examining the extent of peritoneal surface invasion, thereby distinguishing the pT3 and pT4 stages in gastrointestinal cancer. In this study, we present a protocol to identify elastic fibers in the formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded pT3N0M0 gastric cancer tissue sections. We prepare 5-&#181;m paraffin sections fixed on slides, and then all the slides are deparaffinated and rehydrated during the staining procedure. Subsequently, all the sections are oxidized by potassium permanganate, bleached by oxalic acid, stained by elastic staining, and counterstained by Van Gieson's. Finally, we examine the effect of staining; elastic lamina is stained blue-black and collagen fibers are stained red, while the cancer cells are stained in varying shades of yellow. We also describe in detail the methods used for determining the positional relationship between cancer cells and elastic lamina. This method is simple, low-cost, and widely applicable in the identification of peritoneal surface invasion in gastrointestinal cancer because of its outstanding selectivity for elastic fibers and authentic results.

Here, we present a protocol of elastic staining to identify elastic fibers in pT3N0M0 gastric cancer tissues on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections. Subsequently, we describe a method to determine whether tumor cells invade beyond the elastic lamina.

The elastic lamina, which is usually located in the sub-mesothelial layer, adjacent to the peritoneum mesothelial cells, is amphiphilic on hematoxylin and ...

Analysis of Cancer Cell Invasion and Anti-metastatic Drug Screening Using Hydrogel Micro-chamber Array (HMCA)-based Plates

Cancer metastasis is known to cause 90% of cancer lethality. Metastasis is a multistage process which initiates with the penetration/invasion of tumor cells into neighboring tissue. Thus, invasion is a crucial step in metastasis, making the invasion process research and development of anti-metastatic drugs, highly significant. To address this demand, there is a need to develop 3D in vitro models which imitate the architecture of solid tumors and their microenvironment most closely to in vivo state on one hand, but at the same time be reproducible, robust and suitable for high yield and high content measurements. Currently, most invasion assays lean on sophisticated microfluidic technologies which are adequate for research but not for high volume drug screening. Other assays using plate-based devices with isolated individual spheroids in each well are material consuming and have low sample size per condition. The goal of the current protocol is to provide a simple and reproducible biomimetic 3D cell-based system for the analysis of invasion capacity in large populations of tumor spheroids. We developed a 3D model for invasion assay based on HMCA imaging plate for the research of tumor invasion and anti-metastatic drug discovery. This device enables the production of numerous uniform spheroids per well (high sample size per condition) surrounded by ECM components, while continuously and simultaneously observing and measuring the spheroids at single-element resolution for medium throughput screening of anti-metastatic drugs. This platform is presented here by the production of HeLa and MCF7 spheroids for exemplifying single cell and collective invasion. We compare the influence of the ECM component hyaluronic acid (HA) on the invasive capacity of collagen surrounding HeLa spheroids. Finally, we introduce Fisetin (invasion inhibitor) to HeLa spheroids and nitric oxide (NO) (invasion activator) to MCF7 spheroids. The results are analyzed by in-house software which enables semi-automatic, simple and fast analysis which facilitates multi-parameter examination.

Analysis of Cancer Cell Invasion and Anti-metastatic Drug Screening Using Hydrogel Micro-chamber Array HMCA-based Plates

A HMCA-based imaging plate is presented for invasion assay performance. This plate facilitates the formation of three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroids and the measurement of cancer cell invasion into the extracellular matrix (ECM). The invasion assay quantification is achieved by semi-automatic analysis.

Cancer metastasis is known to cause 90% of cancer lethality. Metastasis is a multistage process which initiates with the penetration/invasion of tumor ...

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Isolation from Pulp Tissue and Co-Culture with Cancer Cells to Study Their Interactions

Cancer as a multistep process and complicated disease is not only regulated by individual cell proliferation and growth but also controlled by tumor environment and cell-cell interactions. Identification of cancer and stem cell interactions, including changes in extracellular environment, physical interactions, and secreted factors, might enable the discovery of new therapy options. We combine known co-culture techniques to create a model system for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and cancer cell interactions. In the current study, dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and PC-3 prostate cancer cell interactions were examined by direct and indirect co-culture techniques. Condition medium (CM) obtained from DPSCs and 0.4 &#181;m pore sized trans-well membranes were used to study paracrine activity. Co-culture of different cell types together was performed to study direct cell-cell interaction. The results revealed that CM increased cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis in prostate cancer cell cultures. Both CM and trans-well system increased cell migration capacity of PC-3 cells. Cells stained with different membrane dyes were seeded into the same culture vessels, and DPSCs participated in a self-organized structure with PC-3 cells under this direct co-culture condition. Overall, the results indicated that co-culture techniques could be useful for cancer and MSC interactions as a model system.

We provide protocols for evaluation of mesenchymal stem cells isolated from dental pulp and prostate cancer cell interactions based on direct and indirect co-culture methods. Condition medium and trans-well membranes are suitable to analyze indirect paracrine activity. Seeding differentially stained cells together is an appropriate model for direct cell-cell interaction.

Cancer as a multistep process and complicated disease is not only regulated by individual cell proliferation and growth but also controlled by tumor ...

Semi-automatic PD-L1 Characterization and Enumeration of Circulating Tumor Cells from Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Patients by Immunofluorescence

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) derived from the primary tumor are shed into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. These rare cells (1&#8722;10 cells per mL of blood) warrant a poor prognosis and are correlated with shorter overall survival in several cancers (e.g., breast, prostate and colorectal). Currently, the anti-EpCAM-coated magnetic bead-based CTC capturing system is the gold standard test approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for enumerating CTCs in the bloodstream. This test is based on the use of magnetic beads coated with anti-EpCAM markers, which specifically target epithelial cancer cells. Many studies have illustrated that EpCAM is not the optimal marker for CTC detection. Indeed, CTCs are a heterogeneous subpopulation of cancer cells and are able to undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) associated with metastatic proliferation and invasion. These CTCs are able to reduce the expression of cell surface epithelial marker EpCAM, while increasing mesenchymal markers such as vimentin. To address this technical hurdle, other isolation methods based on physical properties of CTCs have been developed. Microfluidic technologies enable a label-free approach to CTC enrichment from whole blood samples. The spiral microfluidic technology uses the inertial and Dean drag forces with continuous flow in curved channels generated within a spiral microfluidic chip. The cells are separated based on the differences in size and plasticity between normal blood cells and tumoral cells. This protocol details the different steps to characterize the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression of CTCs, combining a spiral microfluidic device with customizable immunofluorescence (IF) marker set.

The characterization of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) is a popular topic in translational research. This protocol describes a semi-automatic immunofluorescence (IF) assay for PD-L1 characterization and enumeration of CTCs in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patient samples.

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) derived from the primary tumor are shed into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. These rare cells (1&#8722;10 cells per mL ...

Radiosensitivity of Cancer Stem Cells in Lung Cancer Cell Lines

The presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) has been associated with relapse or poor outcomes after radiotherapy. Studying radioresistant CSCs may provide clues to overcoming radioresistance. Voltage-gated calcium channel &#945;2&#948;1 subunit isoform 5 has been reported as a marker for radioresistant CSCs in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. Using calcium channel &#945;2&#948;1 subunit as an example of a CSC marker, methods to study the radiosensitivity of CSCs in NSCLC cell lines are presented. CSCs are sorted with putative markers by flow cytometry, and the self-renewal capacity of sorted cells is evaluated by sphere formation assay. Colony formation assay, which determines how many cells lose the ability to generate descendants forming the colony after a certain dose of radiation, is then performed to assess the radiosensitivity of sorted cells. This manuscript provides initial steps for studying the radiosensitivity of CSCs, which establishes the basis for further understanding of the underlying mechanisms.

The presence of cancer stem cells have been associated with relapse or poor outcomes after radiotherapy. This manuscript describes the methods to study the radiosensitivity of cancer stem cells in lung cancer cell lines.

The presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) has been associated with relapse or poor outcomes after radiotherapy. Studying radioresistant CSCs may provide ...

Detection of Cell-Free DNA in Blood Plasma Samples of Cancer Patients

Identifying mutations in tumors of cancer patients is a very important step in disease management. These mutations serve as biomarkers for tumor diagnosis as well as for the treatment selection and its response in cancer patients. The current gold standard method for detecting tumor mutations involves a genetic test of tumor DNA by means of tumor biopsies. However, this invasive method is difficult to be performed repeatedly as a follow-up test of the tumor mutational repertoire. Liquid biopsy is a new and emerging technique for detecting tumor mutations as an easy-to-use and non-invasive biopsy approach.
Cancer cells multiply rapidly. In parallel, numerous cancer cells undergo apoptosis. Debris from these cells are released into a patient&#8217;s circulatory system, together with finely fragmented DNA pieces, called cell-free DNA (cfDNA) fragments, which carry tumor DNA mutations. Therefore, for identifying cfDNA based biomarkers using liquid biopsy technique, blood samples are collected from the cancer patients, followed by the separation of plasma and buffy coat. Next, plasma is processed for the isolation of cfDNA, and the respective buffy coat is processed for the isolation of a patient&#39;s genomic DNA. Both nucleic acid samples are then checked for their quantity and quality; and analyzed for mutations using next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques.
In this manuscript, we present a detailed protocol for liquid biopsy, including blood collection, plasma, and buffy coat separation, cfDNA and germline DNA extraction, quantification of cfDNA or germline DNA, and cfDNA fragment enrichment analysis.

In this paper we present a detailed protocol for non-invasive liquid biopsy technique, including blood collection, plasma and buffy coat separation, cfDNA and germline DNA extraction, quantification of cfDNA or germline DNA, and cfDNA fragment enrichment analysis.

Identifying mutations in tumors of cancer patients is a very important step in disease management. These mutations serve as biomarkers for tumor diagnosis ...

Isolation and Functional Assessment of Human Breast Cancer Stem Cells from Cell and Tissue Samples

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are cancer cells with inherited or acquired stem cell-like characteristics. Despite their low frequency, they are major contributors to breast cancer initiation, relapse, metastasis and therapy resistance. It is imperative to understand the biology of breast cancer stem cells in order to identify novel therapeutic targets to treat breast cancer. Breast cancer stem cells are isolated and characterized based on expression of unique cell surface markers such as CD44, CD24 and enzymatic activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). These ALDHhighCD44+CD24- cells constitute the BCSC population and can be isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for downstream functional studies. Depending on the scientific question, different in vitro and in vivo methods can be used to assess the functional characteristics of BCSCs. Here, we provide a detailed experimental protocol for isolation of human BCSCs from both heterogenous populations of breast cancer cells as well as primary tumor tissue obtained from breast cancer patients. In addition, we highlight downstream in vitro and in vivo functional assays including colony forming assays, mammosphere assays, 3D culture models and tumor xenograft assays that can be used to assess BCSC function.

This experimental protocol describes the isolation of BCSCs from breast cancer cell and tissue samples as well as the in vitro and in vivo assays that can be used to assess BCSC phenotype and function.

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are cancer cells with inherited or acquired stem cell-like characteristics. Despite their low frequency, they are major ...