Name: fabrication of decellularized cartilage-derived matrix scaffolds
Uploaded: 2019-01-07T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication of Decellularized Cartilage-derived Matrix Scaffolds at JoVE.com

The authors would like to acknowledge W. Boot for assistance in the production of the scaffolds. K.E.M. Benders is supported by the Alexandre Suerman Stipendium from the University Medical Center. R. Levato and J. Malda are supported by the Dutch Arthritis Foundation (grant agreements CO-14-1-001 and LLP-12, respectively).

For this protocol, equine stifle cartilage was obtained from horses that had died from other causes than osteoarthritis. Tissue was obtained with permission of the owners, in line with the institutional ethical regulations.
NOTE: This protocol describes the fabrication of scaffolds from decellularized equine cartilage, which can be used for applications such as in vitro tissue culture platforms or for in vivo implantation in regenerative medicine strategies. ...

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H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prevalence+of+chondral+defects+in+athletes'+knees:+a+systematic+review.">Prevalence of chondral defects in athletes' knees: a systematic review.</a> Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 42 (10), 1795-1801 (2010).</li><li>Martel-Pelletier, J., Boileau, C., Pelletier, J. P., Roughley, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cartilage+in+normal+and+osteoarthritis+conditions.">Cartilage in normal and osteoarthritis conditions.</a> Best practice &amp; research. Clinical rheumatology. 22 (2), 351-384 (2008).</li><li>Vinatier, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cartilage+tissue+engineering:+towards+a+biomaterial-assisted+mesenchymal+stem+cell+therapy.">Cartilage tissue engineering: towards a biomaterial-assisted mesenchymal stem cell therapy.</a> Current stem cell research &amp; therapy. 4 (4), 318-329 (2009).</li><li>Taylor, D. A., Sampaio, L. C., Ferdous, Z., Gobin, A. S., Taite, L. 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E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+matrix+scaffolds+for+cartilage+and+bone+regeneration.">Extracellular matrix scaffolds for cartilage and bone regeneration.</a> Trends in biotechnology. 31 (3), 169-176 (2013).</li><li>Benders, K. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multipotent+Stromal+Cells+Outperform+Chondrocytes+on+Cartilage-Derived+Matrix+Scaffolds.">Multipotent Stromal Cells Outperform Chondrocytes on Cartilage-Derived Matrix Scaffolds.</a> Cartilage. 5 (4), 221-230 (2014).</li><li>Gawlitta, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decellularized+cartilage-derived+matrix+as+substrate+for+endochondral+bone+regeneration.">Decellularized cartilage-derived matrix as substrate for endochondral bone regeneration.</a> Tissue engineering. Part A. 21 (3-4), 694-703 (2015).</li><li>Yang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+and+repair+of+cartilage+defects+with+a+novel+acellular+cartilage+matrix+scaffold.">Fabrication and repair of cartilage defects with a novel acellular cartilage matrix scaffold.</a> Tissue engineering. Part C, Methods. 16 (5), 865-876 (2010).</li><li>Pittenger, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multilineage+potential+of+adult+human+mesenchymal+stem+cells.">Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells.</a> Science. 284 (5411), 143-147 (1999).</li><li>Meyer, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decellularization+reduces+the+immune+response+to+aortic+valve+allografts+in+the+rat.">Decellularization reduces the immune response to aortic valve allografts in the rat.</a> The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery. 130 (2), 469-476 (2005).</li><li>Brown, B. N., Valentin, J. E., Stewart-Akers, A. M., McCabe, G. P., Badylak, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macrophage+phenotype+and+remodeling+outcomes+in+response+to+biologic+scaffolds+with+and+without+a+cellular+component.">Macrophage phenotype and remodeling outcomes in response to biologic scaffolds with and without a cellular component.</a> Biomaterials. 30 (8), 1482-1491 (2009).</li><li>Keane, T. J., Londono, R., Turner, N. J., Badylak, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consequences+of+ineffective+decellularization+of+biologic+scaffolds+on+the+host+response.">Consequences of ineffective decellularization of biologic scaffolds on the host response.</a> Biomaterials. 33 (6), 1771-1781 (2012).</li><li>Crapo, P. M., Gilbert, T. W., Badylak, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+overview+of+tissue+and+whole+organ+decellularization.">An overview of tissue and whole organ decellularization.</a> Biomaterials. 32 (12), 3233-3243 (2011).</li><li>Malda, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Of+mice,+men+and+elephants:+the+relation+between+articular+cartilage+thickness+and+body+mass.">Of mice, men and elephants: the relation between articular cartilage thickness and body mass.</a> PloS One. 8 (2), e57683 (2013).</li><li>Malda, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+study+of+depth-dependent+characteristics+of+equine+and+human+osteochondral+tissue+from+the+medial+and+lateral+femoral+condyles.">Comparative study of depth-dependent characteristics of equine and human osteochondral tissue from the medial and lateral femoral condyles.</a> Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 20 (10), 1147-1151 (2012).</li><li>Londono, R., Badylak, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biologic+scaffolds+for+regenerative+medicine:+mechanisms+of+in+vivo+remodeling.">Biologic scaffolds for regenerative medicine: mechanisms of in vivo remodeling.</a> Annals of biomedical engineering. 43 (3), 577-592 (2015).</li><li>Gilbert, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strategies+for+tissue+and+organ+decellularization.">Strategies for tissue and organ decellularization.</a> Journal of cellular biochemistry. 113 (7), 2217-2222 (2012).</li></ol>

The ECM of articular cartilage is very dense and quite resilient to different enzymatic treatments. The multi-step decellularization protocol described in this article addresses such resistance and successfully generates decellularized matrices. To achieve that, the process spans over several days. Many decellularization processes have been proposed for different types of tissues18, and this article describes a protocol suitable for the decellularization of cartilage. In this protocol, it is, howe...

Articular cartilage defects in the knee caused by traumatic events can lead to discomfort, and above all can have a large impact on the lives of the young and active population1,2,3. Moreover, cartilage damage at a young age may lead to a more rapid onset of osteoarthritis later in life4. Currently, the only salvage therapy for generalized osteoarthritis of the knee is joint replacement surgery. As cartilage is a hypocellular, aneural, and avascular tissue, its regenerative capacity is severely limited. Therefore, regenerative medicine approaches are sought after to aid and stimulate the regenerative capacity of the native tissue. For this purpose, scaffolds are designed and used as either a cell-carrier or as an inductive material that incites differentiation and regeneration of tissue by the body&#39;s native cells5.
Decellularized scaffolds have been widely studied within regenerative medicine6. It has had some success, for example, in aiding the regeneration of skin7, abdominal structures8, and tendons9. The advantage of using decellularized scaffolds is their natural origin and their capacity to retain bioactive cues that both attract and induce cell differentiation into the appropriate lineage required for tissue repair6,10. Moreover, since extracellular matrix (ECM) is a natural biomaterial, and decellularization prevents a potential immune response by removing cellular or genetic content, issues regarding biocompatibility and biodegradability are overcome.
Cartilage-derived matrix (CDM) scaffolds have shown great chondrogenic potential in in vitro experiments when seeded with mesenchymal stromal cells11. In addition, these scaffolds have shown the potential to form bone tissue through endochondral ossification on ectopic locations in in vivo settings12. As CDM scaffolds guide the formation of both bone and cartilage tissue, these scaffolds may hold potential for osteochondral defect repair in addition to cartilage repair.
This article describes a protocol adapted from Yang et al. (2010)13 for the production of decellularized CDM scaffolds from equine stifle cartilage. These scaffolds are rich in collagen type II and devoid of cells, and do not contain any glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) after decellularization. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments on (osteo)chondral defect repair can be conducted using these scaffolds.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Cadaveric joint</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>This can be obtained as rest material from the local butcher or veterinary center.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>15290026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid nitrogen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA (0.25%), phenol red</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>25200072</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris-HCl pH 7.5</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deoxyribonuclease I from bovine pancreas</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>DN25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ribonuclease A from bovine pancreas</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R6513</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100 (octoxynol-1)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Papain</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trisodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S4641</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alginate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>180947</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formalin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene oxide sterilization</td>
			<td>Synergy Health, Venlo, the Netherlands</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multipotent Stromal cells/chondrocytes from equine donors</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>MSCs and chondrocytes can be isolated from donor joints that are rest material, coming from the local butcher or veterinary center.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM alpha</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>22561</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-ascorbic acid 2-phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A8960</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>41965</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat inactivated bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>10735086001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2)</td>
			<td>R &#38; D Systems</td>
			<td>233-FB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA quantification kit (Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Reagent)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>P7581</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,9-Dimethyl-Methylene Blue zinc chloride double salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>341088</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Freeze-dryer</td>
			<td>SALMENKIPP</td>
			<td>ALPHA 1-2 LD plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analytical mill</td>
			<td>IKA</td>
			<td>A 11 basic</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mortar/pestle</td>
			<td>Haldenwanger 55/0A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roller plate</td>
			<td>CAT</td>
			<td>RM5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge (for 50 mL tubes)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capsule (cylindric mold)</td>
			<td>TAAB</td>
			<td>8 mm flat</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superlight S UV</td>
			<td>Lumatec</td>
			<td>2001AV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sieve (mesh size 0.71 mm)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>34111229</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel holder</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small laddle</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication of decellularized cartilage-derived matrix scaffolds

Osteochondral defects lack sufficient intrinsic repair capacity to regenerate functionally sound bone and cartilage tissue. To this extent, cartilage research has focused on the development of regenerative scaffolds. This article describes the development of scaffolds that are completely derived from natural cartilage extracellular matrix, coming from an equine donor. Potential applications of the scaffolds include producing allografts for cartilage repair, serving as a scaffold for osteochondral tissue engineering, and providing in vitro models to study tissue formation. By decellularizing the tissue, the donor cells are removed, but many of the natural bioactive cues are thought to be retained. The main advantage of using such a natural scaffold in comparison to a synthetically produced scaffold is that no further functionalization of polymers is required to drive osteochondral tissue regeneration. The cartilage-derived matrix scaffolds can be used for bone and cartilage tissue regeneration in both in vivo and in vitro settings.

Decellularization of CDM scaffolds must always be confirmed using histological stainings as well as using DNA quantification to measure the amount of DNA remnants. Insufficient decellularization might lead to undesired immunological responses that influence the results in in vivo settings15,16,17. For this specific decellularization method, DNA was below the detection range, which started at 13.6...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication of Decellularized Cartilage-derived Matrix Scaffolds at JoVE.com

Fabrication of Decellularized Cartilage-derived Matrix Scaffolds

Decellularized cartilage-derived scaffolds can be used as a scaffold to guide cartilage repair and as a means to regenerate osteochondral tissue. This paper describes the decellularization process in detail and provides suggestions to use these scaffolds in in vitro settings.

Osteochondral defects lack sufficient intrinsic repair capacity to regenerate functionally sound bone and cartilage tissue. To this extent, cartilage ...

This method presents a way to create scaffolds derived from native tissue which can be used for cartilage regeneration. The main advantage of this technique is that components of native cartilage are preserved in the scaffolds that can promote cartilage formation and regeneration in vitro and in vivo. Although these method uses cartilage from equine stifle joints, cartilage from any other joints can be used as well.To begin, obtain an intact cadaveric joint for cartilage isolation and remove the skin excess fat and muscle tissue as described in the accompanying text protocol. Next, define the location where the joint articulates by performing extension inflection of the joint. Make a horizontal incision to reach the joint cavity.Next, make a vertical incision to open up the joint area. The joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid which will likely drip from the cavity when performing of correct incision. Continue to open up the joint completely by removing excessive fat, muscles and tendons, and by cutting through the tendons that keep the joint together.Carefully inspect the cartilage for any macroscopic damage. If the articular cartilage does not have a glossier smooth appearance or if evidence, blistering, clefts or defects are present, discard the cartilage and start again. Use a sterile scalpel to remove the cartilage from the bone.Cut all the way down to the subchondral bone to remove the deep zone cartilage. Collect the removed cartilage slices in 50 milliliter tubes containing previously prepared cartilage washing solution. While being processed, regularly drip cartilage washing solution on the cartilage to prevent the cartilage from drying out.After collecting the cartilage from all of the areas of interest, snap freeze the cartilage slices in liquid nitrogen for five minutes. Then transfer the cartilage slices into 50 milliliter tubes and immediately placed the frozen slices in a freeze dryer. Lyophilize the cartilage slices for 24 hours with the freeze dryer.When finished, store the freeze dried cartilage slices in a dry place at room temperature. For manual processing, pre chill a mortar and pestle with liquid nitrogen, then place the lyophilized cartilage slices in the mortar and submerge them and liquid nitrogen. Directly grind the samples by hand for approximately 45 minutes until they are sufficiently pulverized.Alternatively, to grind the samples automatically using a milling machine, begin by pre cooling the grinding compartment of the milling machine by adding liquid nitrogen. Then add the lyophilized cartilage slices and mill the sample at its preset speed for a few seconds up to a minute. Make sure that all particles are ground and that no particles stay in the bottom of the grinding compartment.Finally, follow along with the decellularization technique described in the accompanying text protocol prior to forming scaffolds. Transfer the cartilage particles with a small label to a cylindrical plastic mold. Press all of the air bubbles out to avoid cavities in the scaffold and fill the mold completely.To avoid cavities in the scaffoldS, ensure that air bubbles are pressed out while filling the mold with cartilage particles. After formation, freeze the mold for 10 minutes at minus 20 degrees Celsius. Then lyophilize the cartilage scaffolds within the mold for 24 hours in a freeze dryer.After lyophilization, carefully remove the scaffold from the mold. Place the scaffold under a 365 nanometer wavelength UV light and cross link it overnight. Form scaffold discs by cutting sterilized scaffolds into three millimeter thick slices.Then transfer the scaffolds into separate wellS of a six well plate. Add one milliliter of Chondrocyte Expansion Medium on top of the scaffolds and allow them to rehydrate for 30 minutes. While the scaffolds rehydrate, prepare the cells and pipette 50 microliter of the prepared cell suspension on top of the pre soaked scaffold.Then incubate the scaffold for one hour at 37 degrees Celsius. When using chondrocytes, make sure they have not been expanded past the first passage in order to minimize the number of the differentiated cells. After one hour, return the plate to the culture hood and carefully turn the scaffold over.Pipette the remaining 50 microliters of cell suspension on the scaffold and incubate for another hour at 37 degrees Celsius. After incubation, add three milliliters of medium to the wells with scaffolds. Avoid pipetting the medium directly on the scaffolds and handle the culture plate gently to avoid detachment of the cells.Return the plate to the incubator and culture cell ceded scaffolds at 37 degrees Celsius. A combination of historlogical staining and DNA quantification have been used to show that the methods presented in this article result in sufficient cartilage scaffold decellularization. The resulting scaffolds were found to contain no cells along with undetectable levels of DNA.They also lack glycosaminoglycans and are rich in collagen II.Here, neo matrix formation is observed on scaffold ceded with mesenchymal stem cells that were cultured for four weeks. The formation of glycosaminoglycans is abundant after four weeks. After attempting this procedure, it is important to examine whether decellularization has been successful, before using it in any application.Following this procedure, additional biochemical analysis like Western blot analyzer can be performed in order to answer specific questions about the presence of other components such as growth factors. This technique paved the way for researchers in the field of tissue engineering to explore strategies for cartilage regeneration using decellularized tissue from allogeneic and syngeneic sources. Precautions such as wearing a lab coat and gloves should always be taken.

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Bioengineering

Epithelial Cell Repopulation and Preparation of Rodent Extracellular Matrix Scaffolds for Renal Tissue Development

This protocol details the generation of acellular, yet biofunctional, renal extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds that are useful as small-scale model substrates for organ-scale tissue development. Sprague Dawley rat kidneys are cannulated by inserting a catheter into the renal artery and perfused with a series of low-concentration detergents (Triton X-100 and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)) over 26 hr to derive intact, whole-kidney scaffolds with intact perfusable vasculature, glomeruli, and renal tubules. Following decellularization, the renal scaffold is placed inside a custom-designed perfusion bioreactor vessel, and the catheterized renal artery is connected to a perfusion circuit consisting of: a peristaltic pump; tubing; and optional probes for pH, dissolved oxygen, and pressure. After sterilizing the scaffold with peracetic acid and ethanol, and balancing the pH (7.4), the kidney scaffold is prepared for seeding via perfusion of culture medium within a large-capacity incubator maintained at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. Forty million renal cortical tubular epithelial (RCTE) cells are injected through the renal artery, and rapidly perfused through the scaffold under high flow (25 ml/min) and pressure (~230 mmHg) for 15 min before reducing the flow to a physiological rate (4 ml/min). RCTE cells primarily populate the tubular ECM niche within the renal cortex, proliferate, and form tubular epithelial structures over seven days of perfusion culture. A 44 &#181;M resazurin solution in culture medium is perfused through the kidney for 1 hr during medium exchanges to provide a fluorometric, redox-based metabolic assessment of cell viability and proliferation during tubulogenesis. The kidney perfusion bioreactor permits non-invasive sampling of medium for biochemical assessment, and multiple inlet ports allow alternative retrograde seeding through the renal vein or ureter. These protocols can be used to recellularize kidney scaffolds with a variety of cell types, including vascular endothelial, tubular epithelial, and stromal fibroblasts, for rapid evaluation within this system.

This protocol describes decellularization of Sprague Dawley rat kidneys by antegrade perfusion of detergents through the vasculature, producing acellular renal extracellular matrices that serve as templates for repopulation with human renal epithelial cells. Recellularization and use of the resazurin perfusion assay to monitor growth is performed within specially-designed perfusion bioreactors.

This protocol details the generation of acellular, yet biofunctional, renal extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds that are useful as small-scale model ...

Fabrication of Mechanically Tunable and Bioactive Metal Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications

Biometal systems have been widely used for biomedical applications, in particular, as load-bearing materials. However, major challenges are high stiffness and low bioactivity of metals. In this study, we have developed a new method towards fabricating a new type of bioactive and mechanically reliable porous metal scaffolds-densified porous Ti scaffolds. The method consists of two fabrication processes, 1) the fabrication of porous Ti scaffolds by dynamic freeze casting, and 2) coating and densification of the porous scaffolds. The dynamic freeze casting method to fabricate porous Ti scaffolds allowed the densification of porous scaffolds by minimizing the chemical contamination and structural defects. The densification process is distinctive for three reasons. First, the densification process is simple, because it requires a control of only one parameter (degree of densification). Second, it is effective, as it achieves mechanical enhancement and sustainable release of biomolecules from porous scaffolds. Third, it has broad applications, as it is also applicable to the fabrication of functionally graded porous scaffolds by spatially varied strain during densification.

Bioactive and mechanically reliable metal scaffolds have been fabricated through a method which consists of two processes, dynamic freeze casting for the fabrication of porous Ti, and coating and densification of the Ti scaffolds. The densification process is simple, effective and applicable to the fabrication of functionally graded scaffolds.

Biometal systems have been widely used for biomedical applications, in particular, as load-bearing materials. However, major challenges are high stiffness ...

Generation of ESC-derived Mouse Airway Epithelial Cells Using Decellularized Lung Scaffolds

Lung lineage differentiation requires integration of complex environmental cues that include growth factor signaling, cell-cell interactions and cell-matrix interactions. Due to this complexity, recapitulation of lung development in vitro to promote differentiation of stem cells to lung epithelial cells has been challenging. In this protocol, decellularized lung scaffolds are used to mimic the 3-dimensional environment of the lung and generate stem cell-derived airway epithelial cells. Mouse embryonic stem cell are first differentiated to the endoderm lineage using an embryoid body (EB) culture method with activin A. Endoderm cells are then seeded onto decellularized scaffolds and cultured at air-liquid interface for up to 21 days. This technique promotes differentiation of seeded cells to functional airway epithelial cells (ciliated cells, club cells, and basal cells) without additional growth factor supplementation. This culture setup is defined, serum-free, inexpensive, and reproducible. Although there is limited contamination from non-lung endoderm lineages in culture, this protocol only generates airway epithelial populations and does not give rise to alveolar epithelial cells. Airway epithelia generated with this protocol can be used to study cell-matrix interactions during lung organogenesis and for disease modeling or drug-discovery platforms of airway-related pathologies such as cystic fibrosis.

This protocol efficiently directs mouse embryonic stem cell-derived definitive endoderm to mature airway epithelial cells. This differentiation technique uses 3-dimensional decellularized lung scaffolds to direct lung lineage specification, in a defined, serum-free culture setting.

Lung lineage differentiation requires integration of complex environmental cues that include growth factor signaling, cell-cell interactions and ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Griffithsin-modified Fiber Scaffolds for Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Infections

Electrospun fibers (EFs) have been widely used in a variety of therapeutic applications; however, they have only recently been applied as a technology to prevent and treat sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Moreover, many EF technologies focus on encapsulating the active agent, relative to utilizing the surface to impart biofunctionality. Here we describe a method to fabricate and surface-modify poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) electrospun fibers, with the potent antiviral lectin Griffithsin (GRFT). PLGA is an FDA-approved polymer that has been widely used in drug delivery due to its outstanding chemical and biocompatible properties. GRFT is a natural, potent, and safe lectin that possesses broad activity against numerous viruses including human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). When combined, GRFT-modified fibers have demonstrated potent inactivation of HIV-1 in vitro. This manuscript describes the methods to fabricate and characterize GRFT-modified EFs. First, PLGA is electrospun to create a fiber scaffold. Fibers are subsequently surface-modified with GRFT using 1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)chemistry. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to assess the size and morphology of surface-modified formulations. Additionally, a gp120 or hemagglutinin (HA)-based ELISA may be used to quantify the amount of GRFT conjugated to, as well as GRFT desorption from the fiber surface. This protocol can be more widely applied to fabricate fibers that are surface-modified with a variety of different proteins.

This manuscript describes the procedure to fabricate and characterize Griffithsin-modified poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) electrospun fibers that demonstrate potent adhesive and antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in vitro. Methods used to synthesize, surface-modify, and characterize the resulting morphology, conjugation, and desorption of Griffithsin from surface-modified fibers are described.

Electrospun fibers (EFs) have been widely used in a variety of therapeutic applications; however, they have only recently been applied as a technology to ...

Fabrication and Use of Dry Macroporous Alginate Scaffolds for Viral Transduction of T Cells

Genetic engineering of T cells for CAR-T cell therapy has come to the forefront of cancer treatment over the last few years. CAR-T cells are produced by viral gene transfer into T cells. The current gold standard of viral gene transfer involves spinoculation of retronectin-coated plates, which is expensive and time-consuming. There is a significant need for efficient and cost-effective methods to generate CAR-T cells. Described here is a method for fabricating inexpensive, dry macroporous alginate scaffolds, known as Drydux scaffolds, that efficiently promote viral transduction of activated T cells. The scaffolds are designed to be used in place of gold standard spinoculation of retronectin-coated plates seeded with virus and simplify the process for transducing cells. Alginate is cross-linked with calcium-D-gluconate and frozen overnight to create the scaffolds. The frozen scaffolds are freeze-dried in a lyophilizer for 72 h to complete the formation of the dry macroporous scaffolds. The scaffolds mediate viral gene transfer when virus and activated T cells are seeded together on top of the scaffold to produce genetically modified cells. The scaffolds produce &gt;85% primary T cell transduction, which is comparable to the transduction efficiency of spinoculation on retronectin-coated plates. These results demonstrate that dry macroporous alginate scaffolds serve as a cheaper and more convenient alternative to the conventional transduction method.

Herein is a protocol for creating dry macroporous alginate scaffolds that mediate efficient viral gene transfer for use in genetic engineering of T cells, including T cells for CAR-T cell therapy. The scaffolds were shown to transduce activated primary T cells with &gt;85% transduction.

Genetic engineering of T cells for CAR-T cell therapy has come to the forefront of cancer treatment over the last few years. CAR-T cells are produced by ...

Synthesis of Decellularized Cartilage Extracellular Matrix Hydrogels

Decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix (DC-ECM) hydrogels are promising biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their biocompatibility and ability to mimic natural tissue properties. This protocol aims to produce DC-ECM hydrogels that closely mimic the native ECM of cartilage tissue. The protocol involves a combination of physical and chemical disruption and enzymatic digestion to remove the cellular material while preserving the structure and composition of the ECM. The DC-ECM is cross-linked using a chemical agent to form a stable and biologically active hydrogel. The DC-ECM hydrogel has excellent biological activity, spatial structure, and biological induction function, as well as low immunogenicity. These characteristics are beneficial in promoting cell adhesion, proliferation, differentiation, and migration and for creating a superior microenvironment for cell growth. This protocol provides a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians in the field of tissue engineering. Biomimetic hydrogels can potentially enhance the development of effective tissue engineering strategies for cartilage repair and regeneration.

This paper introduces a new method for the synthesis of decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix (DC-ECM) hydrogels. DC-ECM hydrogels have excellent biocompatibility and provide a superior microenvironment for cell growth. Therefore, they can be ideal cell scaffolds and biological delivery systems.

Decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix (DC-ECM) hydrogels are promising biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their ...

Comparative Study of Decellularization Techniques for Bovine Lung ECM Hydrogels

Development and Characterization of Decellularized Lung Extracellular Matrix Hydrogels

The use of extracellular matrix (ECM)-derived hydrogels in tissue engineering has become increasingly popular, as they can mimic cells&#39; natural environment in vitro. However, maintaining the native biochemical content of the ECM, achieving mechanical stability, and comprehending the impact of the decellularization process on the mechanical properties of the ECM hydrogels are challenging. Here, a pipeline for decellularization of bovine lung tissue using two different protocols, downstream characterization of the effectiveness of decellularization, fabrication of reconstituted decellularized lung ECM hydrogels and assessment of their mechanical and cytocompatibility properties were described. Decellularization of the bovine lung was pursued using a physical (freeze-thaw cycles) or chemical (detergent-based) method. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining was performed to validate the decellularization and retention of major ECM components. For the evaluation of residual collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content within the decellularized samples, Sirius red and Alcian blue staining techniques were employed, respectively. Mechanical properties of the decellularized lung ECM hydrogels were characterized by oscillatory rheology. The results suggest that decellularized bovine lung hydrogels can provide a reliable organotypic<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; color: black; background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">&#160;alternative to commercial ECM products by retaining most native ECM components. Furthermore, these findings reveal that the decellularization method of choice significantly affects gelation kinetics as well as the stiffness and viscoelastic properties of resulting hydrogels.

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Bovine Lung Decellularization for Organotypic Hydrogels

The protocol elucidates two distinct decellularization methodologies applied to native bovine pulmonary tissues, providing a comprehensive account of their respective characterizations.

The use of extracellular matrix (ECM)-derived hydrogels in tissue engineering has become increasingly popular, as they can mimic cells&#39; natural ...

Decellularized Rat Spleen Matrix Preparation for Liver Tissue Engineering

Fabrication of Decellularized Spleen Matrix Derived from Rats

Liver transplantation is the primary treatment for end-stage liver disease. However, the shortage and inadequate quality of donor organs necessitate the development of alternative therapies. Bioartificial livers (BALs) utilizing decellularized liver matrix (DLM) have emerged as promising solutions. However, sourcing suitable DLMs remains challenging. The use of a decellularized spleen matrix (DSM) has been explored as a foundation for BALs, offering a readily available alternative. In this study, rat spleens were harvested and decellularized using a combination of freeze-thaw cycles and perfusion with decellularization reagents. The protocol preserved the microstructures and components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) within the DSM. The complete decellularization process took approximately 11 h, resulting in an intact ECM within the DSM. Histological analysis confirmed the removal of cellular components while retaining the ECM's structure and composition. The presented protocol provides a comprehensive method for obtaining DSM, offering potential applications in liver tissue engineering and cell therapy. These findings contribute to the development of alternative approaches for the treatment of end-stage liver disease.

Author Spotlight: Utilization of Decellularized Spleen Matrix for Bioartificial Livers

The decellularized spleen matrix (DSM) holds promising applications in the field of liver tissue engineering. This protocol outlines the procedure for preparing rat DSM, which includes harvesting rat spleens, decellularizing them through perfusion, and evaluating the resulting DSM to confirm its characteristics.

Liver transplantation is the primary treatment for end-stage liver disease. However, the shortage and inadequate quality of donor organs necessitate the ...

Analyzing Cell-Seeded Decellularized Apple-Derived Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering

Decellularized Apple-Derived Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering In Vitro and In Vivo

Plant-derived&#160;cellulose biomaterials have been employed in various tissue engineering applications. In vivo studies have shown the remarkable biocompatibility of scaffolds made of cellulose derived from natural sources. Additionally, these scaffolds possess structural characteristics that are relevant for multiple tissues, and they promote the invasion and proliferation of mammalian cells. Recent research using decellularized apple hypanthium tissue has demonstrated the similarity of its pore size to that of trabecular bone as well as&#160;its ability to effectively support osteogenic differentiation. The present study further&#160;examined the potential of apple-derived cellulose scaffolds for bone tissue engineering (BTE) applications and evaluated their in vitro and in vivo mechanical properties. MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts were seeded in apple-derived cellulose scaffolds that were then&#160;assessed for their osteogenic potential and mechanical properties. Alkaline phosphatase and alizarin red S staining confirmed osteogenic differentiation in scaffolds cultured in differentiation medium. Histological examination demonstrated widespread cell invasion and mineralization across the scaffolds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed mineral aggregates on the surface of the scaffolds, and&#160;energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)&#160;confirmed the presence of phosphate and calcium elements. However, despite a significant increase in the Young&#39;s modulus following cell differentiation, it remained lower than that of healthy bone tissue. In vivo studies showed cell infiltration and deposition of extracellular matrix within the decellularized apple-derived&#160;scaffolds after 8 weeks of implantation in rat calvaria. In addition, the force required to remove the scaffolds from the bone defect was similar to the previously reported fracture load of native calvarial bone. Overall, this study confirms that apple-derived cellulose is a promising candidate for BTE applications. However, the dissimilarity between its mechanical properties and those of healthy bone tissue may restrict its application to low load-bearing scenarios. Additional structural re-engineering and optimization may be necessary to enhance the mechanical properties of apple-derived cellulose scaffolds for load-bearing applications.

Author Spotlight: Insights into the Use of Apple-Derived Cellulose Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering 

In this study, we detail methods of decellularization, physical characterization, imaging, and in vivo implantation of plant-based biomaterials, as well as methods for cell seeding and differentiation in the scaffolds. The described methods allow the evaluation of plant-based biomaterials for bone tissue engineering applications.