We are grateful to Michael Feiss and Jean Sippy for the guidance on phage creation and purification. We thank Michael Elowitz for providing the cell recognition software, Schnitzcell. Work in the Golding lab is supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R01GM082837), the National Science Foundation (082265, PFC: Center for the Physics of Living Cells), the Welch Foundation (Grant Q-1759) and Human Frontier Science Program (RGY 70/2008).

<ol>
	<li>Oppenheim, A. B., Kobiler, O., Stavans, J., Court, D. L., Adhya, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switches+in+bacteriophage+lambda+development.">Switches in bacteriophage lambda development.</a> Annu. Rev. Genet. 39, 409-429 (2005).</li><li>Ptashne, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> A genetic switch : phage lambda revisited. , (2004).</li><li>Hendrix, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Lambda II. , (1983).</li><li>Hershey, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Bacteriophage lambda. , (1971).</li><li>Zeng, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decision+making+at+a+subcellular+level+determines+the+outcome+of+bacteriophage+infection.">Decision making at a subcellular level determines the outcome of bacteriophage infection.</a> Cell. 141, 682-691 (2010).</li><li>Edgar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacteriophage+infection+is+targeted+to+cellular+poles.">Bacteriophage infection is targeted to cellular poles.</a> Mol. Microbiol. , (2008).</li><li>Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Current protocols in molecular biology. , (1994).</li><li>Sambrook, J., Russell, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Molecular cloning : a laboratory manual. , (2001).</li><li>Fasman, G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Practical handbook of biochemistry and molecular biology. , (1989).</li><li>Kaiser, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+internal+structure+of+bacteriophage+lambda.">On the internal structure of bacteriophage lambda.</a> J. Gen. Physiol. 49, 171-178 (1966).</li><li>Kobiler, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+kinetic+analysis+of+the+bacteriophage+lambda+genetic+network.">Quantitative kinetic analysis of the bacteriophage lambda genetic network.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci. 102, 4470-4475 (2005).</li><li>Shaner, N. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+monomeric+red,+orange+and+yellow+fluorescent+proteins+derived+from+Discosoma+sp.+red+fluorescent+protein.">Improved monomeric red, orange and yellow fluorescent proteins derived from Discosoma sp. red fluorescent protein.</a> Nat. Biotechnol. 22, 1567-1572 (2004).</li><li>Zeng, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Personal communication with M. Feiss. , .</li><li>Schwartz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+adsorption+of+coliphage+lambda+to+its+host:+effect+of+variations+in+the+surface+density+of+receptor+and+in+phage-receptor+affinity.">The adsorption of coliphage lambda to its host: effect of variations in the surface density of receptor and in phage-receptor affinity.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 103, 521-536 (1976).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

Bacterial Strains, Phage and Plasmids:
Strain LE392 is supF. It was chosen to suppress the Sam7 mutation in the phage genome (see Table 1 for details). Thus, induced lysogens will eventually lyse and release phage particles, as will infected cells that have chosen the lytic pathway. Lysogenic cells are grown at 30&deg;C due to the presence of the temperature sensitive cI857 allele in the phage genome. After heat induction, gpD-EYFP and wild type gpD are co-expressed from the genome of &lambda;LZ1 and the plasmid pPlate*D respectively. As a result, the capsid of the newly created phage &lambda;LZ2 contains a mixture of gpD-EYFP and gpD proteins. This mosaic phage is structurally stable and sufficiently fluorescent to allow detection of individual phages5. pPRE-mCherry is a reporter plasmid used to detect choice of the lysogenic pathway. The promoter PRE is activated by CII during the establishment of lysogeny1,11. pPRE-mCherry5 was derived from pE-gfp11 by replacing gfp with mCherry12. For more details see our earlier work5.
Growth Condition Parameters:
During lysogen induction (Section 1), mild shaking at 180 rpm gives a good virus yield13. Use of glucose in the growth medium should be avoided as glucose metabolism generates acidic metabolic products, and mature lambda particles are unstable at acidic pH13. The addition of MgSO4 is aimed at stabilizing the phage capsid3. For phages carrying wild type cI (instead of cI857), the lysogen can be induced using the DNA-damaging agent Mitomycin C3. In Step 1.3, the incubation at 37&deg;C should normally not exceed 90 minutes. It is useful to check the cell density by OD600 every 30 min. For a good lysate, OD600 drops to around 0.2 or less, and the remaining OD600 is a result of cell debris. Incubating too long may result in a lower phage yield since the newly created phage may start to inject their DNA into cell debris. To obtain a visible phage band (at least 1 x 1011 phage particles) in Steps 2.11 and 2.13, grow at least 500 ml culture in Step 1.2. The addition of 0.2% Maltose into the growth medium in Steps 5.1 and 5.2 is aimed at inducing expression of LamB, the receptor for phage lambda adsorption3,14. The 1000-fold dilution instead of 100-fold in Step 5.2 is aimed at reducing the mCherry background level from the reporter plasmid pPRE-mCherry. In Step 5.5 for phage DNA injection triggering, 35&deg;C is chosen to avoid induction of the temperature-sensitive cI857 allele.
Phage Purification:
The phage purification steps (Steps 2.1 through 2.11) can be replaced with other purification protocols5, but the final ultracentrifugation through CsCl equilibrium gradient (Steps 2.12 and 2.13) is unavoidable. Swinging bucket rotors are needed in Steps 2.10 and 2.12 to ensure sharp visible phage bands. Obtaining a pure phage stock can easily take up to a week, so it is necessary to check the phage titer along the way to make sure nothing goes wrong during the intermediate steps.
Phage Handling:
During all purification procedures in Section 2, it is critical to handle phage lysate gently to avoid shearing phage tails from phage heads. During cell infection in Section 5 (e.g., Steps 5.5 through 5.7), it is also critical to avoid the shearing of phage particles from the infected cell. Note that if the phage is sheared from the infected cell after injecting its DNA, the result is a "dark" infection, i.e. the infection outcome will be observed in experiment but the infecting phage will not. To minimize such problems, we use a wide pipette tip whenever handling phages or the phage/cell mixture.
DAPI Testing:
Staining the phage stock with DAPI (Section 4) is a quick and efficient method to check the purity of the phage stock. It can also be used to test for possible degradation of an existing phage stock over time. For a pure stock, the co-localization of YFP and DAPI signals under the fluorescence microscope should be close to 100%. We typically observe that less than 1% of the YFP spots do not contain DAPI (representing capsids without the viral genome), which indicates that these particles did not successfully package the viral DNA or had already injected their DNA elsewhere. Less than 1% of the DAPI spots do not contain YFP (corresponding to non-fluorescent phages). If this is not the case, Steps 2.12 through 2.14 need to be repeated in order to purify again. With regards to imaging parameters, the microscope setup in Step 4.3 is not as critical as in Section 5 because no long-term live-cell imaging is required here. However, keeping the same microscopy settings as in Section 5 is useful if one wishes to calibrate the fluorescence intensity of a single phage particle. If the PBS-agarose slab is not very clean, or too much DAPI dye is used, some DAPI spots corresponding to phage DNA may be surrounded with a "halo". If too little DAPI dye is used, the signal from the DAPI channel may be very weak.
Microscope System:
For the imaging in Section 6, we use a commercial inverted epifluorescence microscope (Eclipse TE2000-E, Nikon) with a 100x objective (Plan Fluo, numerical aperture 1.40, oil immersion) and standard filter sets (Nikon). The fluorescence light source is an Arc lamp with control of light intensity. The following features are computer controlled: x, y and z position; bright field and fluorescence shutters; and fluorescence filter choice. An auto-focus feature is required. Otherwise, the focus may easily drift away during the time-lapse movie (normally 4 hours long). The ability to acquire multiple (x,y) positions at each time point is useful, as it allows to follow multiple infection events in parallel. We typically acquire 8 stage positions in each movie, following up to 100 infection events. The camera we use is a cooled 512x512 CCD with 16x16 &mu;m pixel camera with a dynamic range of 16 bits (Cascade512, Photometrics). Acquisition is performed using MetaMorph software (Molecular Devices). The microscope should be placed in a temperature-controlled room; alternatively, the microscope stage should be surrounded by a temperature-controlled chamber.
Image Acquisition: 
For live-cell imaging, it is critical to avoid unnecessary exposure of the sample, which could lead to bleaching and phototoxicity. Therefore, it is best to first characterize your system to find an optimal light exposure which allows for fluorescence detection while not leading to excessive bleaching or inhibiting cell growth. To obtain a good fluorescence image, play with the exciting light intensity, exposure time and camera gain. In Steps 6.2-6.3, the 10 min frame interval is chosen for the purpose of minimizing light exposure. In each frame, only a single in-focus image is needed in phase-contrast (for cell recognition) and fluorescent channels (for determining cell fate). In the first time point, however, multiple z-position images through the YFP channel are required to capture all infecting phages on the cell surface. The YFP exposure time in the initial frame may also need to be higher than that used for the time-lapse movie in the later time frames.
Image Analysis:
Very carefully count phage particles around the cell surface in Step 7.1. As noted above, we take a series of z-stacks through YFP channel in Step 6.2. However, this may still leave some fluorescent phage particles out-of-focus, which challenges the counting. The cell length in the initial time frame is measured using the Metamorph software. The cell length can also be measured by ImageJ or other software tools. Additionally, an automated home built Matlab program can be very useful in obtaining information such as fluorescence change over time along cell lineages.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Chloroform</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>C298-500</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NaCl</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>S271-3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>DNase I</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>D4527-10KU</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>RNase</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>R4642-10MG</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PEG8000</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP233-1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SM buffer</td>
 <td>Teknova</td>
 <td>S0249</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NZYM</td>
 <td>Teknova</td>
 <td>N2062</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CsCl</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>C3011-250G</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Syringe</td>
 <td>Becton Dickinson</td>
 <td>309585</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Needle</td>
 <td>Becton Dickinson</td>
 <td>305176</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dialysis cassette</td>
 <td>Thermo Scientific</td>
 <td>66333</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Microscope slide</td>
 <td>Corning</td>
 <td>2947-75x50</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Agarose</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP160-100</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SW40Ti ultra-clear tube</td>
 <td>Beckman Coulter</td>
 <td>344060</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SW60Ti ultra-clear tube</td>
 <td>Beckman Coulter</td>
 <td>344062</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SW40Ti rotor</td>
 <td>Beckman Coulter</td>
 <td>331302</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SW60Ti rotor</td>
 <td>Beckman Coulter</td>
 <td>335649</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Refractometer</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>13-947</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Epifluorescence microscope</td>
 <td>Nikon</td>
 <td>Eclipse TE2000-E</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
Table 2. Reagents and equipment.

following cell-fate in e. coli after infection by phage lambda

The system comprising bacteriophage (phage) lambda and the bacterium E. coli has long served as a paradigm for cell-fate determination1,2. Following the simultaneous infection of the cell by a number of phages, one of two pathways is chosen: lytic (virulent) or lysogenic (dormant)3,4. We recently developed a method for fluorescently labeling individual phages, and were able to examine the post-infection decision in real-time under the microscope, at the level of individual phages and cells5. Here, we describe the full procedure for performing the infection experiments described in our earlier work5. This includes the creation of fluorescent phages, infection of the cells, imaging under the microscope and data analysis. The fluorescent phage is a "hybrid", co-expressing wild- type and YFP-fusion versions of the capsid gpD protein. A crude phage lysate is first obtained by inducing a lysogen of the gpD-EYFP (Enhanced Yellow Fluorescent Protein) phage, harboring a plasmid expressing wild type gpD. A series of purification steps are then performed, followed by DAPI-labeling and imaging under the microscope. This is done in order to verify the uniformity, DNA packaging efficiency, fluorescence signal and structural stability of the phage stock. The initial adsorption of phages to bacteria is performed on ice, then followed by a short incubation at 35&deg;C to trigger viral DNA injection6. The phage/bacteria mixture is then moved to the surface of a thin nutrient agar slab, covered with a coverslip and imaged under an epifluorescence microscope. The post-infection process is followed for 4 hr, at 10 min interval. Multiple stage positions are tracked such that ~100 cell infections can be traced in a single experiment. At each position and time point, images are acquired in the phase-contrast and red and green fluorescent channels. The phase-contrast image is used later for automated cell recognition while the fluorescent channels are used to characterize the infection outcome: production of new fluorescent phages (green) followed by cell lysis, or expression of lysogeny factors (red) followed by resumed cell growth and division. The acquired time-lapse movies are processed using a combination of manual and automated methods. Data analysis results in the identification of infection parameters for each infection event (e.g. number and positions of infecting phages) as well as infection outcome (lysis/lysogeny). Additional parameters can be extracted if desired.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda at JoVE.com

Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda

This article describes the procedure for preparing a fluorescently-labeled version of bacteriophage lambda, infection of E. coli bacteria, following the infection outcome under the microscope, and analysis of infection results.

Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda

The system comprising bacteriophage (phage) lambda and the bacterium E. coli has long served as a paradigm for cell-fate determination1,2. Following the ...

following-cell-fate-in-e-coli-after-infection-by-phage-lambda

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

23.1K Views.  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This article describes the procedure for preparing a fluorescently-labeled version of bacteriophage lambda, infection of E. coli bacteria, following the infection outcome under the microscope, and analysis of infection results.

Video: Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda

Monitoring Immune Cells Trafficking Fluorescent Prion Rods Hours after Intraperitoneal Infection

Presence of an abnormal form a host-encoded prion protein (PrPC) that is protease resistant, pathologic and infectious characterizes prion diseases such as Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) of cervids and scrapie in sheep. The Prion hypothesis asserts that this abnormal conformer constitutes most or all of the infectious prion. The role of the immune system in early events in peripheral prion pathogenesis has been convincingly demonstrated for CWD and scrapie 1-3. Transgenic and pharmacologic studies in mice revealed an important role of the Complement system in retaining and replicating prions early after infection 4-6. In vitro and in vivo studies have also observed prion retention by dendritic cells 7-10, although their role in trafficking remains unclear 11-16. Macrophages have similarly been implicated in early prion pathogenesis, but these studies have focused on events occurring weeks after infection 3,11,17. These prior studies also suffer from the problem of differentiating between endogenous PrPC and infectious prions. Here we describe a semiquantitative, unbiased approach for assessing prion uptake and trafficking from the inoculation site by immune cells recruited there. Aggregated prion rods were purified from infected brain homogenate by detergent solubilization of non-aggregated proteins and ultracentrifugation through a sucrose cushion. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, coomassie blue staining and western blotting confirmed recovery of highly enriched prion rods in the pelleted fraction. Prion rods were fluorochrome-labeled then injected intraperitoneally into mice. Two hours later immune cells from peritoneal lavage fluid, spleen and mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes were assayed for prion rod retention and cell subsets identified by multicolor flow cytometry using markers for monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells, macrophages and B and T cells. This assay allows for the first time direct monitoring of immune cells acquiring and trafficking prions in vivo within hours after infection. This assay also clearly differentiates infectious, aggregated prions from PrPC normally expressed on host cells, which can be difficult and lead to data interpretation problems in other assay systems. This protocol can be adapted to other inoculation routes (oral, intravenous, intranervous and subcutaneous, e.g.) and antigens (conjugated beads, bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens and proteins, egg) as well.

Here we describe a novel assay for monitoring prion uptake and trafficking by immune cells immediately following intraperitoneal inoculation by purifying and fluorescently labeling aggregated prion rods from infected brain material then monitoring their uptake and movement from the injection site and characterizing the cells mediating these events.

Presence of an abnormal form a host-encoded prion protein (PrPC) that is protease resistant, pathologic and infectious characterizes prion diseases such ...

Total Protein Extraction and 2-D Gel Electrophoresis Methods for Burkholderia Species

The investigation of the intracellular protein levels of bacterial species is of importance to understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of diseases caused by these organisms. Here we describe a procedure for protein extraction from Burkholderia species based on mechanical lysis using glass beads in the presence of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride in phosphate buffered saline. This method can be used for different Burkholderia species, for different growth conditions, and it is likely suitable for the use in proteomic studies of other bacteria. Following protein extraction, a two-dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis proteomic technique is described to study global changes in the proteomes of these organisms. This method consists of the separation of proteins according to their isoelectric point by isoelectric focusing in the first dimension, followed by separation on the basis of molecular weight by acrylamide gel electrophoresis in the second dimension. Visualization of separated proteins is carried out by silver staining.

Total Protein Extraction and 2-D Gel Electrophoresis Methods for Burkholderia Species

Members of the Burkholderia genus are pathogens of clinical importance. We describe a method for total bacterial protein extraction, using mechanical disruption, and 2-D gel electrophoresis for subsequent proteomic analysis.

The investigation of  the intracellular protein levels of bacterial species is of importance to  understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of diseases ...

Scalable High Throughput Selection From  Phage-displayed Synthetic Antibody Libraries

The demand for antibodies that fulfill the needs of both basic and clinical research applications is high and will dramatically increase in the future. However, it is apparent that traditional monoclonal technologies are not alone up to this task. This has led to the development of alternate methods to satisfy the demand for high quality and renewable affinity reagents to all accessible elements of the proteome. Toward this end, high throughput methods for conducting selections from phage-displayed synthetic antibody libraries have been devised for applications involving diverse antigens and optimized for rapid throughput and success. Herein, a protocol is described in detail that illustrates with video demonstration the parallel selection of Fab-phage clones from high diversity libraries against hundreds of targets using either a manual 96 channel liquid handler or automated robotics system. Using this protocol, a single user can generate hundreds of antigens, select antibodies to them in parallel and validate antibody binding within 6-8 weeks. Highlighted are: i) a viable antigen format, ii) pre-selection antigen characterization, iii) critical steps that influence the selection of specific and high affinity clones, and iv) ways of monitoring selection effectiveness and early stage antibody clone characterization. With this approach, we have obtained synthetic antibody fragments (Fabs) to many target classes including single-pass membrane receptors, secreted protein hormones, and multi-domain intracellular proteins. These fragments are readily converted to full-length antibodies and have been validated to exhibit high affinity and specificity. Further, they have been demonstrated to be functional in a variety of standard immunoassays including Western blotting, ELISA, cellular immunofluorescence, immunoprecipitation and related assays. This methodology will accelerate antibody discovery and ultimately bring us closer to realizing the goal of generating renewable, high quality antibodies to the proteome.

A method is described with visual accompaniment for conducting scalable, high throughput selections from phage-displayed combinatorial synthetic antibody libraries against hundreds of antigens simultaneously. Using this parallel approach, we have isolated antibody fragments that exhibit high affinity and specificity for diverse antigens that are functional in standard immunoassays.

The demand for antibodies that fulfill the needs of both basic and clinical research applications is high and will dramatically increase in the future. ...

Non-Invasive Model of Neuropathogenic Escherichia coli Infection in the Neonatal Rat

Investigation of the interactions between animal host and bacterial pathogen is only meaningful if the infection model employed replicates the principal features of the natural infection. This protocol describes procedures for the establishment and evaluation of systemic infection due to neuropathogenic Escherichia coli K1 in the neonatal rat. Colonization of the gastrointestinal tract leads to dissemination of the pathogen along the gut-lymph-blood-brain course of infection and the model displays strong age dependency. A strain of E. coli O18:K1 with enhanced virulence for the neonatal rat produces exceptionally high rates of colonization, translocation to the blood compartment and invasion of the meninges following transit through the choroid plexus. As in the human host, penetration of the central nervous system is accompanied by local inflammation and an invariably lethal outcome. The model is of proven utility for studies of the mechanism of pathogenesis, for evaluation of therapeutic interventions and for assessment of bacterial virulence.

Non-Invasive Model of Neuropathogenic Escherichia coli Infection in the Neonatal Rat

Here, a procedure is described for the establishment of systemic infection in the neonatal rat with cultures of Escherichia coli K1. This non-invasive procedure permits colonization of the gastrointestinal tract, translocation of the pathogen to the systemic circulation, and invasion of the central nervous system at the choroid plexus.

Investigation of the interactions between animal host and bacterial pathogen is only meaningful if the infection model employed replicates the principal ...

Phage Phenomics: Physiological Approaches to Characterize Novel Viral Proteins

Current investigations into phage-host interactions are dependent on extrapolating knowledge from (meta)genomes. Interestingly, 60 - 95% of all phage sequences share no homology to current annotated proteins. As a result, a large proportion of phage genes are annotated as hypothetical. This reality heavily affects the annotation of both structural and auxiliary metabolic genes. Here we present phenomic methods designed to capture the physiological response(s) of a selected host during expression of one of these unknown phage genes. Multi-phenotype Assay Plates (MAPs) are used to monitor the diversity of host substrate utilization and subsequent biomass formation, while metabolomics provides bi-product analysis by monitoring metabolite abundance and diversity. Both tools are used simultaneously to provide a phenotypic profile associated with expression of a single putative phage open reading frame (ORF). Representative results for both methods are compared, highlighting the phenotypic profile differences of a host carrying either putative structural or metabolic phage genes. In addition, the visualization techniques and high throughput computational pipelines that facilitated experimental analysis are presented.

Here, we present phenomic approaches for the functional characterization of putative phage genes. Techniques include a developed assay capable of monitoring host anabolic metabolism, the Multi-phenotype Assay Plates (MAPs), in addition to the established method of metabolomics, capable of measuring effects to catabolic metabolism.

Current investigations into phage-host interactions are dependent on extrapolating knowledge from (meta)genomes. Interestingly, 60 - 95% of all phage ...

Transformation of Probiotic Yeast and Their Recovery from Gastrointestinal Immune Tissues Following Oral Gavage in Mice

Development of recombinant oral therapy would allow for more direct targeting of the mucosal immune system and improve the ability to combat gastrointestinal disorders. Adapting probiotic yeast in particular for this approach carries several advantages. These strains have not only the potential to synthesize a wide variety of complex heterologous proteins but are also capable of surviving and protecting those proteins during transit through the intestine. Critically, however, this approach requires expertise in many diverse laboratory techniques not typically used in tandem. Furthermore, although individual protocols for yeast transformation are well characterized for commonly used laboratory strains, emphasis is placed here on alternative approaches and the importance of optimizing transformation for less well characterized probiotic strains. Detailing these methods will help facilitate discussion as to the best approaches for testing probiotic yeast as oral drug delivery vehicles and indeed serve to advance the development of this novel strategy for gastrointestinal therapy.

Presented here is a unified description of techniques that can be used to develop, transform, administer, and test heterologous protein expression of the probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii.

Development of recombinant oral therapy would allow for more direct targeting of the mucosal immune system and improve the ability to combat ...

Foodborne Pathogen Screening Using Magneto-fluorescent Nanosensor: Rapid Detection of E. Coli O157:H7

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been linked to both waterborne and foodborne illnesses, and remains a threat despite the food- and water-screening methods used currently. While conventional bacterial detection methods, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) can specifically detect pathogenic contaminants, they require extensive sample preparation and lengthy waiting periods. In addition, these practices demand sophisticated laboratory instruments and settings, and must be executed by trained professionals. Herein, a protocol is proposed for a simpler diagnostic technique that features the unique combination of magnetic and fluorescent parameters in a nanoparticle-based platform. The proposed multiparametric magneto-fluorescent nanosensors (MFnS) can detect E. coli O157:H7 contamination with as little as 1 colony-forming unit present in solution within less than 1 h. Furthermore, the ability of MFnS to remain highly functional in complex media such as milk and lake water has been verified. Additional specificity assays were also used to demonstrate the ability of MFnS to only detect the specific target bacteria, even in the presence of similar bacterial species. The pairing of magnetic and fluorescent modalities allows for the detection and quantification of pathogen contamination in a wide range of concentrations, exhibiting its high performance in both early- and late-stage contamination detection. The effectiveness, affordability, and portability of the MFnS make them an ideal candidate for point-of-care screening for bacterial contaminants in a wide range of settings, from aquatic reservoirs to commercially packaged foods.

Foodborne Pathogen Screening Using Magneto-fluorescent Nanosensor: Rapid Detection of E. Coli O157:H7

The overall goal of this protocol is to synthesize functional nanosensors for the portable, cost-effective, and rapid detection of specifically targeted pathogenic bacteria through a combination of magnetic relaxation and fluorescence emission modalities.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been linked to both waterborne and foodborne illnesses, and remains a threat despite the food- and ...

Detection of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia Coli Colonization in Murine Host by Non-invasive In Vivo Bioluminescence System

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) O157:H7, which is a foodborne pathogen that causesdiarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis (HS), and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), colonize to the intestinal tract of humans. To study the detailed mechanism of EHEC colonization in vivo, it is essential to have animal models to monitor and quantify EHEC colonization. We demonstrate here a mouse-EHEC colonization model by transforming the bioluminescent expressing plasmid to EHEC to monitor and quantify EHEC colonization in living hosts. Animals inoculated with bioluminescence-labeled EHEC show intense bioluminescent signals in mice by detection with a non-invasive in vivo imaging system. After 1 and 2 days post infection, bioluminescent signals could still be detected in infected animals, which suggests that EHEC colonize in hosts for at least 2 days. We also demonstrate that these bioluminescent EHEC locate to mouse intestine, specifically in the cecum and colon, from ex vivo images. This mouse-EHEC colonization model may serve as a tool to advance the current knowledge of the EHEC colonization mechanism.

Detection of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia Coli Colonization in Murine Host by Non-invasive In Vivo Bioluminescence System

A detailed protocol of a mouse model for enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) colonization by using bioluminescence-labeled bacteria is presented. The detection of these bioluminescent bacteria by a non-invasive in vivo imaging system in live animals can advance our current understanding of EHEC colonization.

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) O157:H7, which is a foodborne pathogen that causesdiarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis (HS), and hemolytic uremic syndrome ...

Creation of a Dense Transposon Insertion Library Using Bacterial Conjugation in Enterobacterial Strains Such As Escherichia Coli or Shigella flexneri

Transposon mutagenesis is a method that allows gene disruption via the random genomic insertion of a piece of DNA called a transposon. The protocol below outlines a method for high efficiency transfer between bacterial strains of a plasmid harboring a transposon containing a kanamycin resistance marker. The plasmid-borne transposase is encoded by a variant tnp gene that inserts the transposon into the genome of the recipient strain with very low insertional bias. This method thus allows the creation of large mutant libraries in which transposons have been inserted into unique genomic positions in a recipient strain of either Escherichia coli or Shigella flexneri bacteria. By using bacterial conjugation, as opposed to other methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation, large libraries with hundreds of thousands of unique clones can be created. This yields high-density insertion libraries, with insertions occurring as frequently as every 4-6 base pairs in non-essential genes. This method is superior to other methods as it allows for an inexpensive, easy to use, and high efficiency method for the creation of a dense transposon insertion library. The transposon library can be used in downstream applications such as transposon sequencing (Tn-Seq), to infer genetic interaction networks, or more simply, in mutational (forward genetic) screens.

Creation of a Dense Transposon Insertion Library Using Bacterial Conjugation in Enterobacterial Strains Such As Escherichia Coli or Shigella flexneri

Presented here is a simple method for creating a high-density transposon insertion library in Escherichia coli or Shigella flexneri using bacterial conjugation. This protocol allows the creation of a collection of hundreds of thousands of unique mutants in bacteria by the random genomic insertion of a transposon.

Transposon mutagenesis is a method that allows gene disruption via the random genomic insertion of a piece of DNA called a transposon. The protocol below ...

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary tissue during pneumonia results in the production of long-lived cytotoxins that can lead to subsequent end organ failure. We have developed in vitro assays to test the hypothesis that cytotoxins are produced during pulmonary infection. Isolated rat pulmonary endothelial cells and the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa are used as model systems, and the production of cytoxins following infection of the endothelial cells by the bacteria is demonstrated using cell culture followed by direct quantitation using lactate dehydrogenase assays and a novel microscopic method utilizing ImageJ technology. The amyloid nature of these cytotoxins was demonstrated by thioflavin T binding assays and by immunoblotting and immunodepletion using A11 anti-amyloid antibody. Further analyses using immunoblotting demonstrated that oligomeric tau and A&#946; were produced and released by endothelial cells following infection by P. aeruginosa. These methods should be readily adaptable to analyses of human clinical samples.

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Simple methods are described for demonstrating the production of cytotoxic amyloids following infection of pulmonary endothelium by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary ...