This work was supported by the Canada Foundation of Innovation (CFI 35492), Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grant (RGPIN-2017-04407), New Frontiers in Research Fund (NFRFE-2018-00969), Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research (SCH-2020-0559), and the University of British Columbia Eminence Fund.

<ol>
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The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The adhesion footprint assay enables visualization of the molecular adhesion events between PSGL-1 and P-selectin during cell rolling adhesion. This process is initiated by P-selectin-mediated capturing followed by rolling under fluidic shear stress. Potential issues during the experiment usually involve poor cell rolling or missing fluorescent tracks even when cells roll well. These problems are often resulting from quality controls at the critical steps in the protocol, as listed in the troubleshooting table (T...

The rolling adhesion cascade describes how circulating cells tether to and roll along the blood vessel wall1. Passive rolling is primarily mediated by selectins, a major class of cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs)1. Under the shear flow of blood, leukocytes expressing P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) form highly transient bonds with P-selectin, which may be expressed on the surface of inflamed endothelial cells. This process is critical for leukocytes to migrate to a site of inflammation2. In addition, PSGL-1 is also a mechanosensitive receptor capable of triggering the subsequent firm adhesion stage of the rolling adhesion cascade upon its engagement with P-selectin3.
Genetic mutations affecting CAM function can severely affect the immune system, such as in the rare disease of leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD), where malfunction of adhesion molecules mediating rolling leads to severely immunocompromised individuals4,5,6. In addition, circulating tumor cells have been shown to migrate following a similar rolling process, leading to metastasis7,8. However, because cell rolling is fast and dynamic, conventional experimental mechanobiology methods are unsuitable for studying molecular interactions during cell rolling. While single-cell and single-molecule manipulation methods like atomic force microscopy and optical tweezer were able to study molecular interactions such as P-selectin&#39;s force-dependent interaction with PSGL-1 at the single-molecule level9, they are unsuitable for investigating live adhesion events during cell rolling. Additionally, the interaction characterized in vitro cannot directly answer the question about molecular adhesion in vivo. For instance, what molecular tension range is biologically relevant when cells are functioning in their native environment? Computational methods such as adhesive dynamics simulation10 or simple steady-state model11 have captured certain molecular details and how they influence the rolling behavior but are highly dependent on the accuracy of the modeling parameters and assumptions. Other techniques such as traction force microscopy can detect forces during cell migration but do not provide sufficient spatial resolution or quantitative information on molecular tension. None of these techniques can provide direct experimental observations of the temporal dynamics, spatial distribution, and magnitude heterogeneity of molecular forces, which directly relate to cell function and behavior in their native environment.
Therefore, implementing a molecular force sensor capable of accurately measuring selectin-mediated interactions is crucial to improving our understanding of rolling adhesion. Here, we describe the protocol for the adhesion footprint assay12 where PSGL-1 coated beads are rolled on a surface presenting p-selectin functionalized tension gauge tethers (TGTs)13. These TGTs are irreversible DNA-based force sensors that result in a permanent history of rupture events in the form of fluorescence readout. This is achieved through the rupturing of the TGT (dsDNA) and then subsequent labeling of the ruptured TGT (ssDNA) with a fluorescently labeled complementary strand. One major advantage of this system is its compatibility with both diffraction-limited and super-resolution imaging. The fluorescently labeled complementary strand can either be permanently bound (&#62;12 bp) for diffraction-limited imaging or transiently bound (7-9 bp) for super-resolution imaging through DNA PAINT. This is an ideal system to study rolling adhesion as the TGTs are ruptured during active rolling, but the fluorescence readout is analyzed post-rolling. The two imaging methods also provide the user with more freedom to investigate rolling adhesion. Typically, diffraction-limited imaging is useful for extracting molecular rupture force through fluorescence intensity13, whereas super-resolution imaging allows for quantitative analysis of receptor density. With the ability to investigate these properties of rolling adhesion, this approach provides a promising platform for understanding the force-regulation mechanism on the molecular adhesion of rolling cells under shear flow.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>4-channel drill guide</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3D printed with ABS filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-holes slide</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Drill clean microscope slide using a Dremel with diamond coated drill bits on a 4-channels drill guide which has a layout that matches with the centers of the 8-32 threaded holes on the aluminum clamp.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH1101-4LP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylic spacer</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Cut two blocks of acrylic sheets with the dimension of 40 mm x 30 mm x 2.5 mm. On each block, drill two 3 mm holes that are precisely aligned with the 4-40 holes on the aluminium holder.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium chip holder</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Machine anodized aluminium block into a C-shaped holder with the outer dimension of 640 mm x 500 mm x 65 mm and the opening dimension of 400 mm x 380 mm x 65 mm. Inlets and outlets are tapped with 8-32 thread.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aminosilane</td>
			<td>AlfaAesar</td>
			<td>L14043</td>
			<td>CAS 1760-24-3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic/antimycotic solution</td>
			<td>Cytiva HyClone</td>
			<td>SV3007901</td>
			<td>Pen/Strep/Fungiezone</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beads, ProtG coated polystyrene</td>
			<td>Spherotech</td>
			<td>PGP-60-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>332</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffer, DNA PAINT</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>0.05% Tween-20, 5 mM Tris, 75 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EDTA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffer, T50M5</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>10mM Tris, 50 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffer, Rolling</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>HBSS with 2mM CaCl2, 2 mM MgCl2, 10 mM Hepes, 0.1% BSA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffer, Wash</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>10 mM Tris, 50 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl2 and 2 mM CaCl2, 0.05% Tween 20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9224</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture flasks</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10062-868</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Concentrated sulfuric acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH3072-2.5LG</td>
			<td>95-98%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslip holding tweezers</td>
			<td>Techni-Tool</td>
			<td>758TW150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamond-coated drill bits</td>
			<td>Abrasive technology</td>
			<td>C5250510</td>
			<td>0.75 mm diamond drill</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA, amine-ssDNA (top strand)</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom oligo</td>
			<td>CCGGGCGACGCAGGAGGG /3AmMO/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA, biotin-ssDNA (bottom strand)</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom oligo</td>
			<td>/5BiotinTEG/ TTTTT CCCTCCTGCGTCGCCCGG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA, imager strand for DNA-PAINT</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom oligo</td>
			<td>GAGGGAAA TT/3Cy3Sp/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA, imager strand for permanent labelling</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom oligo</td>
			<td>CCGGGCGACGCAGG /3Cy3Sp/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-sided tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td>237</td>
			<td>3/4 inch width, permanent double-sided tape</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>15575020</td>
			<td>0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Epoxy</td>
			<td>Gorilla</td>
			<td>42001</td>
			<td>5 minute curing time</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Avantor</td>
			<td>97068-085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GelGreen</td>
			<td>Biotium</td>
			<td>41005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH3094-2.5LG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass, Coverslips</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-548-5P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass, Microscope slide</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48300-026</td>
			<td>75 mm x 25 mm x 1 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass, Staining jar</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>74830-150</td>
			<td>Wheaton Staining Jar (900620)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#39; Balanced Salt solution (HBSS)</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>04-315Q</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemocytometer</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z359629-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HL-60 cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-240</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Humidity chamber slide support</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3D printed with ABS filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen peroxide</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH7690-1</td>
			<td>30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I2399</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inlets/outlets</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Drill through eight 8-32 set screws using cobalt drill bits. Insert 1.5 cm&#160; polyethylene tubing (Tygon, I.D. 1/32&#8221; O.D. 3/32&#8221;) into each hollow setscrew</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iscove Modified Dulbecco Media (IMDM)</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>12-722F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9244</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic Ni-NTA beads</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10103D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mailer tubes</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>EMS71406-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH1135-4LP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro Bio-Spin P-6 Gel Columns</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>7326200</td>
			<td>In SSC Buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEG</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>MPEG-SVA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEG-biotin</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>Biotin-PEG-SVA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>470302-132</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protein, Protein G</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab155724</td>
			<td>N-terminal His-Tag and C-terminal cysteine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protein, P-selectin-Fc</td>
			<td>R&#38;D System</td>
			<td>137-PS</td>
			<td>Recombinant Human P-Selectin/CD62P Fc Chimera Protein, CF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protein, Streptavidin</td>
			<td>Cedarlane</td>
			<td>CL1005-01-5MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pump Syringe</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>704801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Ward&#8217;s Science</td>
			<td>470302-444</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97061-274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfo-SMCC</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>22322</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>81520</td>
			<td>Syringes with PTFE luer lock, 5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe needles</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305115</td>
			<td>Precision Glide 26 G, 5/8 Inch Length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TCEP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C4706-2G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH4502-500GP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tubing, Adaptor</td>
			<td>Tygon</td>
			<td>ABW00001</td>
			<td>Formulation 3350, I.D. 1/32&#8221;; O.D. 3/32&#8221;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tubing, Polyethylene</td>
			<td>BD Intramedic</td>
			<td>427406</td>
			<td>Intramedic (PE20) I.D. 0.38mm; O.D. 1.09mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>93773</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

imaging molecular adhesion in cell rolling by adhesion footprint assay

Rolling adhesion, facilitated by selectin-mediated interactions, is a highly dynamic, passive motility in recruiting leukocytes to the site of inflammation. This phenomenon occurs in postcapillary venules, where blood flow pushes leukocytes in a rolling motion on the endothelial cells. Stable rolling requires a delicate balance between adhesion bond formation and their mechanically-driven dissociation, allowing the cell to remain attached to the surface while rolling in the direction of flow. Unlike other adhesion processes occurring in relatively static environments, rolling adhesion is highly dynamic as the rolling cells travel over thousands of microns at tens of microns per second. Consequently, conventional mechanobiology methods such as traction force microscopy are unsuitable for measuring the individual adhesion events and the associated molecular forces due to the short timescale and high sensitivity required. Here, we describe our latest implementation of the adhesion footprint assay to image the P-selectin: PSGL-1 interactions in rolling adhesion at the molecular level. This method utilizes irreversible DNA-based tension gauge tethers to produce a permanent history of molecular adhesion events in the form of fluorescence tracks. These tracks can be imaged in two ways: (1) stitching together thousands of diffraction-limited images to produce a large field of view, enabling the extraction of adhesion footprint of each rolling cell over thousands of microns in length, (2) performing DNA-PAINT to reconstruct super-resolution images of the fluorescence tracks within a small field of view. In this study, the adhesion footprint assay was used to study HL-60 cells rolling at different shear stresses. In doing so, we were able to image the spatial distribution of the P-selectin: PSGL-1 interaction and gain insight into their molecular forces through fluorescence intensity. Thus, this method provides the groundwork for the quantitative investigation of the various cell-surface interactions involved in rolling adhesion at the molecular level.

The protocol above describes the experimental procedure of the adhesion footprint assay. The general experiment workflow is illustrated in Figure 1, from the flow chamber assembly (Figure 1A) to the surface functionalization (Figure 1B) and experiment and imaging steps (Figure 1C).
Figure 2 is a representative result for the ProtG-ssDNA bioconjug...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging Molecular Adhesion in Cell Rolling by Adhesion Footprint Assay at JoVE.com

Imaging Molecular Adhesion in Cell Rolling by Adhesion Footprint Assay

This protocol presents the experimental procedures to perform the adhesion footprint assay to image the adhesion events during fast cell rolling adhesion.

Rolling adhesion, facilitated by selectin-mediated interactions, is a highly dynamic, passive motility in recruiting leukocytes to the site of ...

imaging-molecular-adhesion-in-cell-rolling-by-adhesion-footprint-assay

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

3.0K Views.  The University of British Columbia. This protocol presents the experimental procedures to perform the adhesion footprint assay to image the adhesion events during fast cell rolling adhesion. 

Video: Imaging Molecular Adhesion in Cell Rolling by Adhesion Footprint Assay

Assay for Adhesion and Agar Invasion in S. cerevisiae

Yeasts are found in natural biofilms, where many microorganisms colonize surfaces. In artificial environments, such as surfaces of man-made objects, biofilms can reduce industrial productivity, destroy structures, and threaten human life. 1-3 On the other hand, harnessing the power of biofilms can help clean the environment and generate sustainable energy. 4-8
The ability of S. cerevisiae to colonize surfaces and participate in complex biofilms was mostly ignored until the rediscovery of the differentiation programs triggered by various signaling pathways and environmental cues in this organism. 9, 10 The continuing interest in using S. cerevisiae as a model organism to understand the interaction and convergence of signaling pathways, such as the Ras-PKA, Kss1 MAPK, and Hog1 osmolarity pathways, quickly placed S. cerevisiae in the junction of biofilm biology and signal transduction research. 11-20 To this end, differentiation of yeast cells into long, adhesive, pseudohyphal filaments became a convenient readout for the activation of signal transduction pathways upon various environmental changes. However, filamentation is a complex collection of phenotypes, which makes assaying for it as if it were a simple phenotype misleading. In the past decade, several assays were successfully adopted from bacterial biofilm studies to yeast research, such as MAT formation assays to measure colony spread on soft agar and crystal violet staining to quantitatively measure cell-surface adherence. 12, 21 However, there has been some confusion in assays developed to qualitatively assess the adhesive and invasive phenotypes of yeast in agar.
Here, we present a simple and reliable method for assessing the adhesive and invasive quality of yeast strains with easy-to-understand steps to isolate the adhesion assessment from invasion assessment. Our method, adopted from previous studies, 10, 16 involves growing cells in liquid media and plating on differential nutrient conditions for growth of large spots, which we then wash with water to assess adhesion and rub cells completely off the agar surface to assess invasion into the agar. We eliminate the need for streaking cells onto agar, which affects the invasion of cells into the agar. In general, we observed that haploid strains that invade agar are always adhesive, yet not all adhesive strains can invade agar medium. Our approach can be used in conjunction with other assays to carefully dissect the differentiation steps and requirements of yeast signal transduction, differentiation, quorum sensing, and biofilm formation.

We describe a qualitative assay for yeast adhesion and agar invasion as a measure of invasive and pseudohyphal differentiation. This simple assay can be used to assess the invasive phenotype of various mutants as well as the effects environmental cues and signaling pathways on yeast differentiation.

Yeasts are found in natural biofilms, where many microorganisms colonize surfaces. In artificial environments, such as surfaces of man-made objects, ...

Dissection of Organizer and Animal Pole Explants from Xenopus laevis Embryos and Assembly of a Cell Adhesion Assay

This video demonstrates the technique used for preparation of organizer and animal pole explants from Xenopus laevis embryos, including the use of the eyebrow knife - a specialized dissection tool made of one's eyebrow. The protocol for assembling an adhesion assay is also given, which probes for the presence of key adhesion molecules present on the surface organizer or animal pole cells that are critical for proper development.

Title Cell Encapsulation by Droplets

A Behavioral Assay to Measure Responsiveness of Zebrafish to Changes in Light Intensities 

The optokinetic reflex (OKR) is a basic visual reflex exhibited by most vertebrates and plays an important role in stabilizing the eye relative to the visual scene. However, the OKR requires that an animal detect moving stripes and it is possible that fish that fail to exhibit an OKR may not be completely blind. One zebrafish mutant, the no optokinetic response c (nrc) has no OKR under any light conditions tested and was reported to be completely blind. Previously, we have shown that OFF-ganglion cell activity can be recorded in these mutants. To determine whether mutant fish with no OKR such as the nrc mutant can detect simple light increments and decrements we developed the visual motor behavioral assay (VMR). In this assay, single zebrafish larvae are placed in each well of a 96-well plate allowing the simultaneous monitoring of larvae using an automated video-tracking system. The locomotor responses of each larva to 30 minutes light ON and 30 minutes light OFF were recorded and quantified. WT fish have a brief spike of motor activity upon lights ON, known as the startle response, followed by return to lower-than baseline activity, called a freeze. WT fish also sharply increase their locomotor activity immediately following lights OFF and only gradually (over several minutes) return to baseline locomotor activity. The nrc mutants respond similarly to light OFF as WT fish, but exhibit a slight reduction in their average activity as compared to WT fish. Motor activity in response to light ON in nrc mutants is delayed and sluggish. There is a slow rise time of the nrc mutant response to light ON as compared to WT light ON response. The results indicate that nrc fish are not completely blind. Because teleosts can detect light through non-retinal tissues, we confirmed that the immediate behavioral responses to light-intensity changes require intact eyes by using the chokh (chk) mutants, which completely lack eyes from the earliest stages of development. In our VMR assay, the chk mutants exhibit no startle response to either light ON or OFF, showing that the lateral eyes mediate this behavior. The VMR assay described here complements the well-established OKR assay, which does not test the ability of zebrafish larvae to respond to changes in light intensities. Additionally, the automation of the VMR assay lends itself to high-throughput screening for defects in light-intensity driven visual responses.

A Behavioral Assay to Measure Responsiveness of Zebrafish to Changes in Light Intensities

We developed the Visual-Motor Response to quantitate the motor output of larval zebrafish in response to light increments and decrements. We also examined zebrafish vision mutants, including the no optokinetic response (nrc) mutants, which were thought to be completely blind when tested by another vision assay, the optokinetic reflex.

The optokinetic reflex (OKR) is a basic visual reflex exhibited by most vertebrates and plays an important role in stabilizing the eye relative to the ...

Platelet Adhesion and Aggregation Under Flow using Microfluidic Flow Cells

Platelet aggregation occurs in response to vascular injury where the extracellular matrix below the endothelium has been exposed. The platelet adhesion cascade takes place in the presence of shear flow, a factor not accounted for in conventional (static) well-plate assays. This article reports on a platelet-aggregation assay utilizing a microfluidic well-plate format to emulate physiological shear flow conditions. Extracellular proteins, collagen I or von Willebrand factor are deposited within the microfluidic channel using active perfusion with a pneumatic pump. The matrix proteins are then washed with buffer and blocked to prepare the microfluidic channel for platelet interactions. Whole blood labeled with fluorescent dye is perfused through the channel at various flow rates in order to achieve platelet activation and aggregation. Inhibitors of platelet aggregation can be added prior to the flow cell experiment to generate IC50 dose response data.

The platelet adhesion cascade takes place in the presence of shear flow, a factor not accounted for in conventional (static) well-plate assays. This article reports on a platelet-aggregation assay utilizing a microfluidic well-plate format to emulate physiological shear flow conditions.

Platelet aggregation occurs in response to vascular injury where the extracellular matrix below the endothelium has been exposed. The platelet adhesion ...

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging. Cell shape changes in the fly are analogous to those in higher organisms, and they drive tissue morphogenesis. So, in many cases, their study has direct implications for understanding human disease (Table 1)1-5. On the sub-cellular scale, these cell shape changes are the product of activities ranging from gene expression to signal transduction, cell polarity, cytoskeletal remodeling and membrane trafficking. Thus, the Drosophila embryo provides not only the context to evaluate cell shape changes as they relate to tissue morphogenesis, but also offers a completely physiological environment to study the sub-cellular activities that shape cells.
The protocol described here is designed to image a specific cell shape change called cellularization. Cellularization is a process of dramatic plasma membrane growth, and it ultimately converts the syncytial embryo into the cellular blastoderm. That is, at interphase of mitotic cycle 14, the plasma membrane simultaneously invaginates around each of ~6000 cortically anchored nuclei to generate a sheet of primary epithelial cells. Counter to previous suggestions, cellularization is not driven by Myosin-2 contractility6, but is instead fueled largely by exocytosis of membrane from internal stores7. Thus, cellularization is an excellent system for studying membrane trafficking during cell shape changes that require plasma membrane invagination or expansion, such as cytokinesis or transverse-tubule (T-tubule) morphogenesis in muscle.
Note that this protocol is easily applied to the imaging of other cell shape changes in the fly embryo, and only requires slight adaptations such as changing the stage of embryo collection, or using "embryo glue" to mount the embryo in a specific orientation (Table 1)8-19. In all cases, the workflow is basically the same (Figure 1). Standard methods for cloning and Drosophila transgenesis are used to prepare stable fly stocks that express a protein of interest, fused to Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) or its variants, and these flies provide a renewable source of embryos. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins/probes are directly introduced into fly embryos via straightforward micro-injection techniques9-10. Then, depending on the developmental event and cell shape change to be imaged, embryos are collected and staged by morphology on a dissecting microscope, and finally positioned and mounted for time-lapse imaging on a confocal microscope.

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

Early development of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is characterized by a number of cell shape changes that are well suited for imaging approaches. This article will describe basic tools and methods required for live confocal imaging of Drosophila embryos, and will focus on a cell shape change called cellularization.

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging.  Cell shape ...

Live Imaging Assay for Assessing the Roles of Ca2+ and Sphingomyelinase in the Repair of Pore-forming Toxin Wounds

Plasma membrane injury is a frequent event, and wounds have to be rapidly repaired to ensure cellular survival. Influx of Ca2+ is a key signaling event that triggers the repair of mechanical wounds on the plasma membrane within ~30 sec. Recent studies revealed that mammalian cells also reseal their plasma membrane after permeabilization with pore forming toxins in a Ca2+-dependent process that involves exocytosis of the lysosomal enzyme acid sphingomyelinase followed by pore endocytosis. Here, we describe the methodology used to demonstrate that the resealing of cells permeabilized by the toxin streptolysin O is also rapid and dependent on Ca2+ influx. The assay design allows synchronization of the injury event and a precise kinetic measurement of the ability of cells to restore plasma membrane integrity by imaging and quantifying the extent by which the liphophilic dye FM1-43 reaches intracellular membranes. This live assay also allows a sensitive assessment of the ability of exogenously added soluble factors such as sphingomyelinase to inhibit FM1-43 influx, reflecting the ability of cells to repair their plasma membrane. This assay allowed us to show for the first time that sphingomyelinase acts downstream of Ca2+-dependent exocytosis, since extracellular addition of the enzyme promotes resealing of cells permeabilized in the absence of Ca2+.

Live Imaging Assay for Assessing the Roles of Ca2+ and Sphingomyelinase in the Repair of Pore-forming Toxin Wounds

Live imaging of cells exposed to the lipophilic dye FM1-43 allows precise determination of the kinetics by which pore-forming toxins are removed from the plasma membrane. This is a sensitive assay that can be used to assess requirements for Ca2+, sphingomyelinase and other factors on plasma membrane repair.

Plasma membrane injury is a frequent event, and wounds have to be rapidly repaired to ensure cellular survival. Influx of Ca2+ is a key signaling event ...

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain the turnover of all mature blood cell lineages. The coordination of the complex signals leading to specific HSC fates relies upon the interaction between HSCs and the intricate bone marrow microenvironment, which is still poorly understood[1-2].
We describe how by combining a newly developed specimen holder for stable animal positioning with multi-step confocal and two-photon in vivo imaging techniques, it is possible to obtain high-resolution 3D stacks containing HSPCs and their surrounding niches and to monitor them over time through multi-point time-lapse imaging. High definition imaging allows detecting ex vivo labeled hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) residing within the bone marrow. Moreover, multi-point time-lapse 3D imaging, obtained with faster acquisition settings, provides accurate information about HSPC movement and the reciprocal interactions between HSPCs and stroma cells.
Tracking of HSPCs in relation to GFP positive osteoblastic cells is shown as an exemplary application of this method. This technique can be utilized to track any appropriately labeled hematopoietic or stromal cell of interest within the mouse calvarium bone marrow space.

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

The nature of the interactions between hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and bone marrow niches is poorly understood. Custom hardware modifications and a multi-step acquisition protocol allow the use of two-photon and confocal microscopy to image ex vivo labeled HSPCs homed within bone marrow areas, tracking interactions and movement.

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

Activating Autophagy by Aerobic Exercise in Mice

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced and targets various cargos, such as bulk cytosol, damaged organelles and misfolded proteins, for degradation in lysosomes. Resulting nutrient molecules are recycled back to the cytosol for new protein synthesis and ATP production. Upregulation of autophagy has beneficial effects against the pathogenesis of many diseases, and pharmacological and physiological strategies to activate autophagy have been reported. Aerobic exercise is recently identified as an efficient autophagy inducer in multiple organs in mice, including muscle, liver, heart and brain. Here we show procedures to induce autophagy in vivo by either forced treadmill exercise or voluntary wheel running. We also demonstrate microscopic and biochemical methods to quantitatively analyze autophagy levels in mouse tissues, using the marker proteins LC3 and p62 that are transported to and degraded in lysosomes along with autophagosomes.

Autophagy activation is beneficial in the prevention of a number of diseases. One of the physiological approaches to induce autophagy in vivo is physical exercise. Here we show how to activate autophagy by aerobic exercise and measure autophagy levels in mice.

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced ...

Analyzing Cell Surface Adhesion Remodeling in Response to Mechanical Tension Using Magnetic Beads

Mechanosensitive cell surface adhesion complexes allow cells to sense the mechanical properties of their surroundings. Recent studies have identified both force-sensing molecules at adhesion sites, and force-dependent transcription factors that regulate lineage-specific gene expression and drive phenotypic outputs. However, the signaling networks converting mechanical tension into biochemical pathways have remained elusive. To explore the signaling pathways engaged upon mechanical tension applied to cell surface receptor, superparamagnetic microbeads can be used. Here we present a protocol for using magnetic beads to apply forces to cell surface adhesion proteins. Using this approach, it is possible to investigate not only force-dependent cytoplasmic signaling pathways by various biochemical approaches, but also adhesion remodeling by magnetic isolation of adhesion complexes attached to the ligand-coated beads. This protocol includes the preparation of ligand-coated superparamagnetic beads, and the application of define tensile forces followed by biochemical analyses. Additionally, we provide a representative sample of data demonstrating that tension applied to integrin-based adhesion triggers adhesion remodeling and alters protein tyrosine phosphorylation.

Cell surface adhesions are central in mechanotransduction, as they transmit mechanical tension and initiate the signaling pathways involved in tissue homeostasis and development. Here, we present a protocol for dissecting the biochemical pathways that are activated in response to tension, using ligand-coated magnetic microbeads and force application to adhesion receptors.

Mechanosensitive cell surface adhesion complexes allow cells to sense the mechanical properties of their surroundings. Recent studies have identified both ...