The authors thank Sherry Rausch and Samri Gebre (National Cancer Institute, NIH) for animal management and care and James Mather for help in producing a range of plastic spacers.&#160;This research was supported [in part] by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH.

All animal procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health in compliance with the US National Research Council&#39;s Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, the US Public Health Service&#39;s Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. For this work, the number 4 glands of female primiparous mice (aged 4-5 months, day 10 of lactation) were surgically prepared in the right-hand supine position (Figure 1A).
1. Animal preparation
<ol>
	<li>Weigh the mouse on a top-loading balance to calculate the amount of anesthetic required.</li>
	<li>During and after applying anesthetics, maintain body temperature by placing the mouse on a warming pad.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the mouse by brief exposure to isoflurane (3.0%-3.5%) in an oxygen-saturated respiration chamber (see Table of Materials) for 1-2 min, followed by an intraperitoneal injection of a mixture of 100 mg/kg of ketamine and 10 mg/kg of xylazine.</li>
	<li>Maintain animals under a deep plane of anesthesia during both surgery and imaging by further applying titrated doses of xylazine and ketamine (half to a quarter of the initial dose outlined in step 1.3) through an indwelling catheter (see step 3.4) every 45 min or so, as required. 
	NOTE: An optimal plane of anesthesia is most easily maintained by checking for palpebral and toe pinch reflexes every 10-20 min. The temperature of conscious mice is 36.5-38 &#176;C, which drops to 34.5 &#176;C under anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Cross-foster the pups22 if donor mice at a similar stage of lactation are available; otherwise, euthanize the litter. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Pups &#60;10 days of age should be euthanized by exposure to 3.0% isoflurane followed by decapitation. Pups &#8805;10 days of age should be euthanized via CO2 inhalation followed by cervical dislocation.</li>
</ol>
2. Surgery procedure
<ol>
	<li>Keep the mouse warm throughout surgery on a warming pad. Shave the fur from the skin surrounding the number 4 and 5 mammary glands (supine, right side) using a hand-held electric razor. Clean the shaved area with three alternating betadine and alcohol scrubs.</li>
	<li>Wipe all surgical instruments with 70% alcohol. Make a mid-line incision of ~1 cm close to the fourth nipple by pinching the skin with tweezers and cutting the raised skin with sharp scissors. Make circular incisions around the gland in both cranial and caudal directions and carefully peel the skin away from the abdomen. Keep the exposed skin moist with physiological saline.</li>
	<li>To minimize blood loss, seal any prominent blood vessels with a hand-held cauterizer (see Table of Materials) before cutting through them. Any exogenous blood should be promptly removed with physiological saline to avoid subsequent loss of optical resolution.</li>
	<li>Remove superficial connective and adipose tissue by gently teasing the surface layer with fine forceps.</li>
	<li>Keep the exposed gland moist with physiological saline and protect the abdominal wall with gel and semi-transparent, flexible, thermoplastic film (see Table of Materials). 
	NOTE: Steps 2.2-2.5 create a flap of skin with a portion of the gland and associated vasculature separated from the abdominal wall (Figure 1Bi-iv).</li>
	<li>If required, treat the gland with exogenous agents, e.g., pharmacological agents or organelle-specific dyes, by bathing the exposed gland during surgery. 
	&#8203;NOTE: In the examples given, LDs in either an EGFPcyto or EGFPmembr (mG) mouse were labeled with 1.0 mL of boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY)665/676 (10 mM stock solution in dimethyl sulphoxide diluted 1 to a 1,000-fold in saline and applied for &#60;1 h) and in the tdTomatomembr (mT) or EGFPmembr (mG) mouse, with 0.5 mL of monodansylpentane23 (0.1M stock solution in dimethyl sulphoxide diluted 1 to a 1,000-fold in saline and applied for 5 min).</li>
</ol>
3. Imaging preparation
<ol>
	<li>Carefully position the mouse with the abdominal side down on a heated (37 &#176;C) inverted microscope stage, such that the skin flap extends onto the central cover glass (30 mm) (Figure 1Biv). Protect the exposed areas with a thin layer of gel.</li>
	<li>Stabilize the skin flap with custom-made spacers to cushion the gland from motion artifacts caused by breathing and heartbeat. To achieve this, place a notched spacer made from three taped cotton sticks (Figure 1Ci) between the skin flap and the body wall and tape the rear leg and tail to the stage behind the spacer (Figure 1Bv).</li>
	<li>Prevent the skin flap from sliding during imaging by securely taping a plastic cover (Figure 1Cii) at either end on the stage opening (Figure 1Bv).</li>
	<li>Insert a subcutaneous indwelling catheter under the dorsal skin attached to a tube, syringe, and pump (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Confirm that the skin flap is stable with adequate blood flow by conventional fluorescence microscopy (Figure 1Bvi).</li>
	<li>Cover the mouse with sponge gauze (see Table of Materials) to keep warm during imaging, 
	&#8203;NOTE: Steps 3.1-3.5 are the most critical in ensuring the acquisition of high-resolution videos suitable for quantitative analysis. There is no point in proceeding beyond this stage unless tissue stability has been confirmed.</li>
</ol>
4. Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>For conventional confocal microscopy of the EGFPcyto or EGFPmembr (mG) mouse labeled with BODIPY665/676 (Figure 2, Video 1, and Video 2), use an inverted microscope equipped with a preheated 60x oil immersion objective, maintained at 37 &#176;C (see Table of Materials).
	<ol>
		<li>Separately detect EGFP and BODIPY665/676 using 488 and 633 lasers, respectively; for EGFP, excitation 488 nm, and emission 560 nm, with band-pass filter BA 505-605; for BODIPY665/676, excitation 633 nm and emission 668 nm, with band-pass filter BA 655-755.</li>
		<li>Collect images by line scan at either 4 or 8 &#181;s/pixel (512 x 512 pixels; 12 bits per pixel) every 5 s or 10 s for 1-2 h and store as TIFF files. Manually maintain scanned areas in-frame by correcting for x/y drift throughout the imaging cycle. Construct 3-D images from z-scans using software associated with the microscope (see Table of Materials).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For two-photon microscopy of the EGFPmembr (mG) mouse labeled with monodansylpentane (Figure 3, Video 3), use an inverted microscope equipped with a tunable laser and a 37 &#176;C preheated 30x objective (see Table of Materials).
	<ol>
		<li>Excite the gland at 910 nm and detect monodansylpentane and EGFP with two GaAs detectors, using 410-460 nm and 495-540 nm band-pass filters for blue and green emissions, respectively.</li>
		<li>Collect images by line scan at 2 &#181;s/pixel (320 x 320 pixels; 16 bits per pixel) and store them as OIR files. Manually maintain scanned areas in-frame by correcting x/y drift throughout the imaging cycle. Construct 3-D images from z-scans using software associated with the microscope.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For two-photon microscopy of the tdTomatomembr (mT) mouse labeled with monodansylpentane (Figure 4, Video 4), use an inverted microscope with tunable lasers, and a 37 &#176;C preheated 63x objective (see Table of Materials).
	<ol>
		<li>Excite specimens at 800 nm and 1,060 nm simultaneously and detect monodansylpentane with a HyD hybrid detector set at emission 418-471 nm and TdTomato with another HyD hybrid detector set at emission 595-667 nm.</li>
		<li>Collect the images by line scan with four lines averaging at 200 Hz (512 x 512 pixels; 12 bits per pixel) and store them as LIF files. Manually maintain scanned areas in-frame by correcting x/y drift throughout the imaging cycle. Construct 3-D images from z scans using software associated with the microscope.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Euthanasia
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize the mice at the end of imaging via CO2 inhalation following institutionally approved protocols.</li>
</ol>
6. Creation of real-time videos
<ol>
	<li>Convert time sequences into TIFF files, and then into videos using appropriate software (see Table of Materials). 
	NOTE: Quantitative analysis of specific videos is beyond the scope of this paper and will require specific methods for the solution of specific problems. For example, see Ebrahim et al.24 for the role of actinomyosin complexes in exocytosis of saliva from the salivary gland, Meyer et al.25 for the dynamics of bile secretion from the liver, and Masedunskas et al.9 for analysis of LD secretion from mammary epithelial cells.</li>
</ol>

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</ol>

None of the authors have any conflicting interests to declare.

Whether to use a one- or multiphoton microscope depends upon the questions being asked, the nature and location of the tissue to be imaged, and the resolution required. Multiphoton microscopes are based on generating two or more low-energy photons in the near-infrared, which can penetrate tissues to a greater depth with less phototoxicity than one-photon microscopes29,30. In addition, the fluorophore is only excited at the focal point, which reduces light scatter...

Intravital microscopy of the mouse mammary gland is attracting increased attention as a powerful method for analyzing a whole range of biological phenomena, including the origin and differentiation of stem cells1,2, the progression of metastatic tumors3,4,5, and the role of ductal macrophages throughout mammary development and involution6. Through the development of Intravital Subcellular Microscopy (ISMic)7, investigations have been extended to membrane traffic and secretory mechanisms during lactation8,9, and oxytocin-mediated contraction of myoepithelial cells9,10. Two main methods have been developed that take advantage of the gland&#39;s accessibility between the skin and body wall.
In the first approach, an acrylic or glass window is inserted into the skin and secured with a metal retaining ring1,3,11. The mice tolerate the surgery well, and various phenomena can be analyzed on an intermittent basis in the same animal over several weeks. This method has proved especially useful for lineage tracing1,12 and monitoring the invasion and progression of mammary tumors in situ3,11. However, resolution below the whole-cell level has proven difficult because the gland is still attached to the body wall and is thus subject to motion artifacts caused by respiration and heartbeat.
In the second approach, the gland is surgically exposed on a skin flap with intact vasculature and stabilized on the microscope stage with spacers4,9,13. A portion of the gland is thus effectively separated from the abdominal wall, and motion artifacts are minimized. In most cases, the exposed parenchyma is placed directly on the coverslip with the mouse ventral side down on an inverted microscope. In a recent modification, the mouse was placed supine on an upright microscope, and the exposed gland was protected in a fluid-filled cell sealed with a coverslip2. This latter configuration allows access to the parenchymal surface for experimental manipulation during imaging. Resolution down to &#60;1 &#181;m, in either case, permits analysis of intracellular processes, as exemplified by the tracking of lipid droplets (LDs) in mammary epithelial cells9.
The present protocol details a facile method for the intravital imaging of mammary epithelial cells at the sub-cellular level using the biogenesis, transport, and secretion of LDs during lactation as an example. This approach is widely applicable to many other processes, including the transport and secretion of milk proteins14, the transcytosis of proteins from the serosal side of the epithelium to the alveolar lumen15,16, and the remodeling of the gland during involution17,18.
Mice expressing a fluorescent protein are preferred for most intravital experiments to facilitate the selection of appropriate areas for imaging and as a morphological reference marker. A wide range of suitable transgenic and knock-in mice are available, which express fluorescent protein markers in cellular compartments, cytoskeletal elements, membranes, and organelles19. In the examples given, the EGFPcyto FvB mouse was used, in which enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is targeted to the cytoplasm in most cells20 (denoted EGFPcyto), and the C57BL/6J Tomato (mT/mG) mouse21, which is a double fluorescent Cre line encoding tdTomato and EGFP genes. EGFP expression is enabled through Cre-mediated excision of the tdTomato gene. Either fluorophore is targeted to the plasma membrane in most cells through a sequon derived from the MARCKS protein21. In this work, mice expressing the red tdTomato fluorophore are denoted tdTomatomembr (mT), and mice expressing EGFP, after excision of the tdTomato gene are denoted EGFPmembr (mG).
Mice have five pairs of mammary glands on either side of the ventral midline, three in the thoracic region (numbered 1-3) and two in the inguinal region (numbered 4-5) (Figure 1A). For ISMic, the inguinal glands are the most accessible and easiest to stabilize, as they are furthest away from global motions associated with respiration and heartbeat in the thorax.

<table><tbody><tr><td>488 laser</td><td>Melles-Griot</td><td>-</td><td>CW&amp;nbsp; laser 50 mW</td></tr><tr><td>60x PLAPON oil immersion objective (NA 1.42)</td><td>Olympus</td><td>1-U2B933</td><td>Lens Confocal microscope</td></tr><tr><td>633 laser</td><td>Melles-Griot</td><td>-</td><td>CW He-Ne laser 12 mW</td></tr><tr><td>63x objective (NA 1.40, HC PL APO CS2)</td><td>Leica</td><td>11506350</td><td>Lens Two-photon microscope</td></tr><tr><td>BA 410-460 nm</td><td>Chroma</td><td>-</td><td>Band-pass filter</td></tr><tr><td>BA 495-540 nm</td><td>Chroma</td><td>-</td><td>Band-pass filter</td></tr><tr><td>BA 505-605 nm</td><td>Chroma</td><td>-</td><td>Band-pass filter</td></tr><tr><td>BA 655-755 nm</td><td>Chroma</td><td>-</td><td>Band-pass filter</td></tr><tr><td>Boron-dipyrromethane (BODIPY) 665/676</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>B3932</td><td>Lipid peroxiation sensor</td></tr><tr><td>Carbomer-940</td><td>Snowdrift Farm</td><td>739601480651</td><td>Gel</td></tr><tr><td>Catheter</td><td>Terumo</td><td>SV27EL</td><td>Winged infusion sets&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Cauterizer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>GEM 5917</td><td>Cautery system</td></tr><tr><td>CMV-Cre mouse&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Jackson lab</td><td>006054</td><td>Mouse line</td></tr><tr><td>Coverslip</td><td>Bioptechs</td><td>-</td><td>30mm diameter coverlip for inverted microscope</td></tr><tr><td>Curity 4x4 inch all purpose sponge gauze</td><td>Covidien</td><td>9024</td><td>Sponge</td></tr><tr><td>EGFP&lt;sub&gt;cyto&lt;/sub&gt; mouse</td><td>Jackson lab</td><td>003291</td><td>Mouse line</td></tr><tr><td>Fiji/ImageJ software</td><td>Open source</td><td>-</td><td>Free software tool</td></tr><tr><td>Fine forceps</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>FC003 8</td><td>Tissue forceps</td></tr><tr><td>Fluoview 1000 microscope</td><td>Olympus</td><td>FV1000</td><td>Confocal microscope</td></tr><tr><td>FluoView software</td><td>Olympus</td><td>-</td><td>Confocal microscope and Two-photon microscope</td></tr><tr><td>Hand-held electric razor</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>CLP-8786-451A</td><td>Cordless clipper</td></tr><tr><td>Heat pad</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>DPIP</td><td>Heat pad for animals</td></tr><tr><td>HyD detectors</td><td>Leica</td><td>-</td><td>Leica 4Tune spectral detector</td></tr><tr><td>Imaris software</td><td>Bitplane / Oxford instruments</td><td>-</td><td>Commercial software tool</td></tr><tr><td>Ingisht X3 tunable laser</td><td>Spectra Physics</td><td>Insight X3</td><td>Tunable Pulse-Laser</td></tr><tr><td>Isoflurane</td><td>VetOne</td><td>13985-046-40</td><td>Anesthetic</td></tr><tr><td>Ketamine&amp;nbsp;</td><td>VetOne</td><td>13985-702-10</td><td>Anesthetic</td></tr><tr><td>LAS X Software</td><td>Leica</td><td>-</td><td>Two-photon microscope software tool</td></tr><tr><td>Mai-Tai tunable laser</td><td>Spectra Physics</td><td>Mai-Tai</td><td>Laser</td></tr><tr><td>MetaMorph</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td>-</td><td>Commercial software tool</td></tr><tr><td>Monodansylpentane AUTODOT</td><td>Abcepta</td><td>Sm1000a</td><td>Lipid droplet dye</td></tr><tr><td>MPE-RS microscope</td><td>Olympus</td><td>IX70</td><td>Two-photon microscope</td></tr><tr><td>mT/mG mouse</td><td>Jackson lab</td><td>007676</td><td>Mouse line</td></tr><tr><td>Objective heater</td><td>Bioptechs</td><td>150819</td><td>Objective heater for both confocal and two-photon microscopes</td></tr><tr><td>Oxygen-saturated respiration chamber</td><td>Patterson Scientific</td><td>78933385, SAS3 and EVAC4</td><td>Gas Anesthesia and evacuation system&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Parafilm</td><td>Heathrow Scientific</td><td>HS234526B</td><td>Semi-transparent, flexible, thermoplastic film</td></tr><tr><td>PMT detector</td><td>Olympus</td><td>-</td><td>Descanned&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; detectors</td></tr><tr><td>PMT detector</td><td>LSM-Technology</td><td>Custom built</td><td>Non-Descanned Detectors</td></tr><tr><td>Pump</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>703602, 704402</td><td>Nanomite injector and controller</td></tr><tr><td>Saline</td><td>Quality Biological</td><td>114-055-721EA</td><td>Normal saline</td></tr><tr><td>Sharp blunt-ended scissors</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>SCT-S 508</td><td>Surgical scissors</td></tr><tr><td>Syringe</td><td>Covidien</td><td>22-257-150</td><td>1mL tuberculin syringe</td></tr><tr><td>TCS SP8 Dive Spectral microscope</td><td>Leica</td><td>SP8</td><td>Two-photon microscope</td></tr><tr><td>Tweezers&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Braintree Scientific, Inc</td><td>FC032</td><td>Tissue forceps</td></tr><tr><td>Xylazine&amp;nbsp;</td><td>VetOne</td><td>13985-704-10</td><td>Anesthetic</td></tr></tbody></table>

intravital subcellular microscopy of the mammary gland

The mammary gland constitutes a model par excellence for investigating epithelial functions, including tissue remodeling, cell polarity, and secretory mechanisms. During pregnancy, the gland expands from a primitive ductal tree embedded in a fat pad to a highly branched alveolar network primed for the formation and secretion of colostrum and milk. Post-partum, the gland supplies all the nutrients required for neonatal survival, including membrane-coated lipid droplets (LDs), proteins, carbohydrates, ions, and water. Various milk components, including lactose, casein micelles, and skim-milk proteins, are synthesized within the alveolar cells and secreted from vesicles by exocytosis at the apical surface. LDs are transported from sites of synthesis in the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the cell apex, coated with cellular membranes, and secreted by a unique apocrine mechanism. Other preformed constituents, including antibodies and hormones, are transported from the serosal side of the epithelium into milk by transcytosis. These processes are amenable to intravital microscopy because the mammary gland is a skin gland and, therefore, directly accessible to experimental manipulation. In this paper, a facile procedure is described to investigate the kinetics of LD secretion in situ, in real-time, in live anesthetized mice. Boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY)665/676&#160;or monodansylpentane are used to label the neutral lipid fraction of transgenic mice, which either express soluble EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) in the cytoplasm, or a membrane-targeted peptide fused to either EGFP or tdTomato. The membrane-tagged fusion proteins serve as markers of cell surfaces, and the lipid dyes resolve LDs &#8805; 0.7 &#181;m. Time-lapse images can be recorded by standard laser scanning confocal microscopy down to a depth of 15-25 &#181;m or by multiphoton microscopy for imaging deeper in the tissue. The mammary gland may be bathed with pharmacological agents or fluorescent dyes throughout the surgery, providing a platform for acute experimental manipulations as required.

Milk is secreted from polarized alveolar epithelial cells, which differentiate during pregnancy from the buds of an extensive ductular tree26 (Figure 2A). Precursors for milk synthesis are assimilated across basal/lateral membranes and completed products are secreted across the apical surface into a central &#34;milk space&#34;. The basal side of each alveolus is covered by a stellate array of myoepithelial cells (Figure 2A), which are pr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intravital Subcellular Microscopy of the Mammary Gland at JoVE.com

Intravital Subcellular Microscopy of the Mammary Gland

The present protocol describes a facile technique for the intravital imaging of the lactating mouse mammary gland by laser scanning confocal and multiphoton microscopy.

The mammary gland constitutes a model par excellence for investigating epithelial functions, including tissue remodeling, cell polarity, and secretory ...

intravital-subcellular-microscopy-of-the-mammary-gland

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

881 Views.  National Institutes of Health. The present protocol describes a facile technique for the intravital imaging of the lactating mouse mammary gland by laser scanning confocal and multiphoton microscopy.

Video: Intravital Subcellular Microscopy of the Mammary Gland

Transfer of Mammary Gland-forming Ability Between Mammary Basal Epithelial Cells and Mammary Luminal Cells via Extracellular Vesicles/Exosomes

Cells can communicate via exosomes, ~100-nm extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contain proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Non-adherent/mesenchymal mammary epithelial cell (NAMEC)-derived extracellular vesicles can be isolated from NAMEC medium via differential ultracentrifugation. Based on their density, EVs can be purified via ultracentrifugation at 110,000 x g. The EV preparation from ultracentrifugation can be further separated using a continuous density gradient to prevent contamination with soluble proteins. The purified EVs can then be further evaluated using nanoparticle-tracking analysis, which measures the size and number of vesicles in the preparation. The extracellular vesicles with a size ranging from 50 to 150 nm are exosomes. The NAMEC-derived EVs/exosomes can be ingested by mammary epithelial cells, which can be measured by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Some mammary stem cell properties (e.g., mammary gland-forming ability) can be transferred from the stem-like NAMECs to mammary epithelial cells via the NAMEC-derived EVs/exosomes. Isolated primary EpCAMhi/CD49flo luminal mammary epithelial cells cannot form mammary glands after being transplanted into mouse fat pads, while EpCAMlo/CD49fhi basal mammary epithelial cells form mammary glands after transplantation. Uptake of NAMEC-derived EVs/exosomes by EpCAMhi/CD49flo luminal mammary epithelial cells allows them to generate mammary glands after being transplanted into fat pads. The EVs/exosomes derived from stem-like mammary epithelial cells transfer mammary gland-forming ability to EpCAMhi/CD49flo luminal mammary epithelial cells.

This protocol describes methods for purifying, quantitating, and characterizing extracellular vesicles (EVs)/exosomes from non-adherent/mesenchymal mammary epithelial cells and for using them to transfer mammary gland-forming ability to luminal mammary epithelial cells. EVs/exosomes derived from stem-like mammary epithelial cells can transfer this cell property to cells that ingest the EVs/exosomes.

Cells can communicate via exosomes, ~100-nm extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contain proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Non-adherent/mesenchymal ...

Developmental Biology

Longitudinal Intravital Imaging Through Clear Silicone Windows

Intravital microscopy (IVM) enables visualization of cell movement, division, and death at single-cell resolution. IVM through surgically inserted imaging windows is particularly powerful because it allows longitudinal observation of the same tissue over days to weeks. Typical imaging windows comprise a glass coverslip in a biocompatible metal frame sutured to the mouse&#8217;s skin. These windows can interfere with the free movement of the mice, elicit a strong inflammatory response, and fail due to broken glass or torn sutures, any of which may necessitate euthanasia. To address these issues, windows for long-term abdominal organ and mammary gland imaging&#160;were developed from a thin film of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), an optically clear silicone polymer previously used for cranial imaging windows. These windows can be glued directly to the tissues, reducing the time needed for insertion. PDMS is flexible, contributing to its durability in mice over time&#8212;up to 35 days have been tested. Longitudinal imaging is imaging of the same tissue region during separate sessions. A stainless-steel grid was embedded within the windows to localize the same region, allowing the visualization of dynamic processes (like mammary gland involution) at the same locations, days apart. This silicone window also allowed monitoring of single disseminated cancer cells developing into micro-metastases over time. The silicone windows used in this study are simpler to insert than metal-framed glass windows and cause limited inflammation of the imaged tissues. Moreover, embedded grids allow for straightforward tracking of the same tissue region in repeated imaging sessions.

An approach is here presented for long-term intravital imaging using optically clear, silicone windows that can be glued directly to the tissue/organ of interest and the skin.&#160;These windows are cheaper and more versatile than others currently used in the field, and the surgical insertion causes limited inflammation and distress to the animals.

Intravital microscopy (IVM) enables visualization of cell movement, division, and death at single-cell resolution. IVM through surgically inserted imaging ...

Cancer Research

A Label-Free Segmentation Approach for Intravital Imaging of Mammary Tumor Microenvironment

The ability to visualize complex and dynamic physiological interactions between numerous cell types and the extracellular matrix (ECM) within a live tumor microenvironment is an important step toward understanding mechanisms that regulate tumor progression. While this can be accomplished through current intravital imaging techniques, it remains challenging due to the heterogeneous nature of tissues and the need for spatial context within the experimental observation. To this end, we have developed an intravital imaging workflow that pairs collagen second harmonic generation imaging, endogenous fluorescence from the metabolic co-factor NAD(P)H, and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) as a means to non-invasively compartmentalize the tumor microenvironment into basic domains of the tumor nest, the surrounding stroma or ECM, and the vasculature. This non-invasive protocol details the step-by-step process ranging from the acquisition of time-lapse images of mammary tumor models to post-processing analysis and image segmentation. The primary advantage of this workflow is that it exploits metabolic signatures to contextualize the dynamically changing live tumor microenvironment without the use of exogenous fluorescent labels, making it advantageous for human patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models and future clinical use where extrinsic fluorophores are not readily applicable.

The intravital imaging method described here utilizes collagen second harmonic generation and endogenous fluorescence from the metabolic co-factor NAD(P)H to non-invasively segment an unlabeled tumor microenvironment into tumor, stromal, and vascular compartments for in-depth analysis of 4D intravital images.

The ability to visualize complex and dynamic physiological interactions between numerous cell types and the extracellular matrix (ECM) within a live tumor ...

In Vivo Gene Delivery into Mouse Mammary Epithelial Cells Through Mammary Intraductal Injection

Mouse mammary glands comprise ductal trees, which are lined by epithelial cells and have one opening at the tip of each nipple. The epithelial cells play a major role in mammary gland function and are the origin of most mammary tumors. Introducing genes of interest into mouse mammary epithelial cells is a critical step in evaluating gene function in epithelial cells and generating mouse mammary tumor models. This goal can be accomplished through the intraductal injection of a viral vector carrying the genes of interest into the mouse mammary ductal tree. The injected virus subsequently infects mammary epithelial cells, bringing in the genes of interest. The viral vector can be lentiviral, retroviral, adenoviral, or adenovirus-associated viral (AAV). This study demonstrates how a gene of interest is delivered into mammary epithelial cells through mouse mammary intraductal injection of a viral vector. A lentivirus carrying GFP is used to show stable expression of a delivered gene, and a retrovirus carrying Erbb2 (HER2/Neu) is used to demonstrate oncogene-induced atypical hyperplastic lesions and mammary tumors.

In Vivo Gene Delivery into Mouse Mammary Epithelial Cells Through Mammary Intraductal Injection

The present protocol describes intraductal injection of viral vectors via the teat to deliver genes of interest into the mammary epithelial cells.

Mouse mammary glands comprise ductal trees, which are lined by epithelial cells and have one opening at the tip of each nipple. The epithelial cells play ...

Intraductal Delivery to the Rabbit Mammary Gland

Localized intraductal treatments for breast cancer offer potential advantages, including efficient delivery to the tumor and reduced systemic toxicity and adverse effects1,2,3,4,5,6,7. However, several challenges remain before these treatments can be applied more widely. The development and validation of intraductal therapeutics in an appropriate animal model facilitate the development of intraductal therapeutic strategies for patients. While the mouse mammary gland has been widely used as a model system of mammary development and tumorigenesis, the anatomy is distinct from the human gland. A larger animal model, such as the rabbit, may serve as a better model for mammary gland structure and intraductal therapeutic development. In contrast to mice, in which ten ductal trees are spatially distributed along the body axis, each terminating in a separate teat, the rabbit mammary gland more closely resembles the human gland, with multiple overlapping ductal systems that exit through separate openings in one teat. Here, we present minimally invasive methods for the delivery of reagents directly into the rabbit mammary duct and for visualization of the delivery itself with high-resolution ultrasound imaging.

Here, we describe a technique for the localized delivery of reagents to the rabbit mammary gland via an intraductal injection. In addition, we describe a protocol for visualization and the confirmation of delivery by high-resolution ultrasound imaging of contrast agents.

Localized intraductal treatments for breast cancer offer potential advantages, including efficient delivery to the tumor and reduced systemic toxicity and ...

Bioengineering

Extended Time-lapse Intravital Imaging of Real-time Multicellular Dynamics in the Tumor Microenvironment

In the tumor microenvironment, host stromal cells interact with tumor cells to promote tumor progression, angiogenesis, tumor cell dissemination and metastasis. Multicellular interactions in the tumor microenvironment can lead to transient events including directional tumor cell motility and vascular permeability. Quantification of tumor vascular permeability has frequently used end-point experiments to measure extravasation of vascular dyes. However, due to the transient nature of multicellular interactions and vascular permeability, the kinetics of these dynamic events cannot be discerned. By labeling cells and vasculature with injectable dyes or fluorescent proteins, high-resolution time-lapse intravital microscopy has allowed the direct, real-time visualization of transient events in the tumor microenvironment. Here we describe a method for using multiphoton microscopy to perform extended intravital imaging in live mice to directly visualize multicellular dynamics in the tumor microenvironment. This method details cellular labeling strategies, the surgical preparation of a mammary skin flap, the administration of injectable dyes or proteins by tail vein catheter and the acquisition of time-lapse images. The time-lapse sequences obtained from this method facilitate the visualization and quantitation of the kinetics of cellular events of motility and vascular permeability in the tumor microenvironment.

This protocol describes the use of multiphoton microscopy to perform extended time-lapse imaging of multicellular interactions in real time, in vivo at single cell resolution.

In the tumor microenvironment, host stromal cells interact with tumor cells to promote tumor progression, angiogenesis, tumor cell dissemination and ...

Medicine

Intravital Microscopy for Imaging Subcellular Structures in Live Mice Expressing Fluorescent Proteins

Here we describe a procedure to image subcellular structures in live rodents that is based on the use of confocal intravital microscopy. As a model organ, we use the salivary glands of live mice since they provide several advantages. First, they can be easily exposed to enable access to the optics, and stabilized to facilitate the reduction of the motion artifacts due to heartbeat and respiration. This significantly facilitates imaging and tracking small subcellular structures. Second, most of the cell populations of the salivary glands are accessible from the surface of the organ. This permits the use of confocal microscopy that has a higher spatial resolution than other techniques that have been used for in vivo imaging, such as two-photon microscopy. Finally, salivary glands can be easily manipulated pharmacologically and genetically, thus providing a robust system to investigate biological processes at a molecular level.
In this study we focus on a protocol designed to follow the kinetics of the exocytosis of secretory granules in acinar cells and the dynamics of the apical plasma membrane where the secretory granules fuse upon stimulation of the beta-adrenergic receptors. Specifically, we used a transgenic mouse that co-expresses cytosolic GFP and a membrane-targeted peptide fused with the fluorescent protein tandem-Tomato. However, the procedures that we used to stabilize and image the salivary glands can be extended to other mouse models and coupled to other approaches to label in vivo cellular components, enabling the visualization of various subcellular structures, such as endosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria, and the actin cytoskeleton.

Intravital microscopy is a powerful tool that enables imaging various biological processes in live animals. In this article, we present a detailed method for imaging the dynamics of subcellular structures, such as the secretory granules, in the salivary glands of live mice.

Here we describe a procedure to image subcellular structures in live rodents that is based on the use of confocal intravital microscopy. As a model organ, ...

Intraductal Injection for Localized Drug Delivery to the Mouse Mammary Gland

Herein we describe a protocol to deliver various reagents to the mouse mammary gland via intraductal injections. Localized drug delivery and knock-down of genes within the mammary epithelium has been difficult to achieve due to the lack of appropriate targeting molecules that are independent of developmental stages such as pregnancy and lactation. Herein, we describe a technique for localized delivery of reagents to the mammary gland at any stage in adulthood via intraductal injection into the nipples of mice. The injections can be performed on live mice, under anesthesia, and allow for a non-invasive and localized drug delivery to the mammary gland. Furthermore, the injections can be repeated over several months without damaging the nipple. Vital dyes such as Evans Blue are very helpful to learn the technique. Upon intraductal injection of the blue dye, the entire ductal tree becomes visible to the eye. Furthermore, fluorescently labeled reagents also allow for visualization and distribution within the mammary gland. This technique is adaptable for a variety of compounds including siRNA, chemotherapeutic agents, and small molecules.

A protocol for the non-invasive intraductal delivery of aqueous reagents to the mouse mammary gland is described. The method takes advantage of localized injection into the nipples of mammary glands targeting mammary ducts specifically. This technique is adaptable for a variety of compounds including siRNA, chemotherapeutic agents and small molecules.

Herein we describe a protocol to deliver various reagents to the mouse mammary gland via intraductal injections. Localized drug delivery and knock-down of ...

Indirect Immunofluorescence on Frozen Sections of Mouse Mammary Gland

Indirect immunofluorescence is used to detect and locate proteins of interest in a tissue. The protocol presented here describes a complete and simple method for the immune detection of proteins, the mouse lactating mammary gland being taken as an example. A protocol for the preparation of the tissue samples, especially concerning the dissection of mouse mammary gland, tissue fixation and frozen tissue sectioning, are detailed. A standard protocol to perform indirect immunofluorescence, including an optional antigen retrieval step, is also presented. The observation of the labeled tissue sections as well as image acquisition and post-treatments are also stated. This procedure gives a full overview, from the collection of animal tissue to the cellular localization of a protein. Although this general method can be applied to other tissue samples, it should be adapted to each tissue/primary antibody couple studied.

The indirect immunofluorescence protocol described in this article allows the detection and the localization of proteins in the mouse mammary gland. A complete method is given to prepare mammary gland samples, to perform immunohistochemistry, to image the tissue sections by fluorescence microscopy, and to reconstruct images.

Indirect immunofluorescence is used to detect and locate proteins of interest in a tissue. The protocol presented here describes a complete and simple ...

Isolation of Intact, Whole Mouse Mammary Glands for Analysis of Extracellular Matrix Expression and Gland Morphology

The goal of this procedure was to harvest the #4 abdominal mammary glands from female nulliparous mice in order to assess ECM expression and ductal architecture. Here, a small pocket below the skin was created using Mayo scissors, allowing separation of the glands within the subcutaneous tissue from the underlying peritoneum. Visualization of the glands was aided by the use of 3.5x-R surgical micro loupes. The pelt was inverted and pinned back allowing identification of the intact mammary fat pads. Each of the #4 abdominal glands was bluntly dissected by sliding the scalpel blade laterally between the subcutaneous layer and the glands. Immediately post-harvest, glands were placed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for subsequent tissue processing. Excision of the entire gland is advantageous because it primarily eliminates the risk of excluding important tissue-wide interactions between ductal epithelial cells and other microenvironmental cellular populations that could be missed in a partial biopsy. One drawback of the methodology is the use of serial sections from fixed tissues which limits analyses of ductal morphogenesis and protein expression to discrete locations within the gland. As such, changes in ductal architecture and protein expression in 3 dimensions (3D) is not readily obtainable. Overall, the technique is applicable to studies requiring whole intact murine mammary glands for downstream investigations such as developmental ductal morphogenesis or breast cancer.

Here, we present a protocol for the isolation of whole, intact mouse mammary glands to investigate extracellular matrix (ECM) expression and ductal morphology. Mouse #4 abdominal glands were extracted from 8-10 week old female nulliparous mice, fixed in neutral buffered formalin, sectioned and stained using immunohistochemistry for ECM proteins.

The goal of this procedure was to harvest the #4 abdominal mammary glands from female nulliparous mice in order to assess ECM expression and ductal ...

Intravital Subcellular Microscopy of the Mammary Gland

Summary

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A Label-Free Segmentation Approach for Intravital Imaging of Mammary Tumor Microenvironment

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